The Scientific Revolution

The Scientific Revolution marked a pivotal shift in how knowledge was pursued and validated. Prior to the 15th-16th centuries, scholars relied heavily on ancient Greek and Roman texts or Biblical references to determine truth. However, new developments began to challenge old beliefs and encourage innovative ways of thinking.

Key factors that spurred this revolution included:

• The Age of Exploration, which exposed Europeans to new lands and cultures
• Invention of tools like the telescope and microscope that allowed closer observation of the natural world
• The printing press, which enabled wider dissemination of new ideas

Several prominent mathematicians and scientists drove major advancements:

• Nicolaus Copernicus published his heliocentric theory in 1543, proposing that the Earth revolves around the Sun rather than being the center of the universe.

• Johannes Kepler confirmed the heliocentric model and established laws of planetary motion, including elliptical orbits.

• Galileo Galilei used telescopes to make groundbreaking observations about the moon, other planets, and celestial bodies.

• Isaac Newton discovered the law of universal gravitation, explaining the motion of planets and matter.

Highlight: The Church initially resisted many of these new scientific ideas, as they contradicted long-held religious beliefs. It took until 1992 for the Catholic Church to formally acknowledge Galileo was correct - nearly 400 years after his discoveries!

Definition: The heliocentric theory states that the Sun is at the center of the solar system, with planets revolving around it. This contrasted with the previous geocentric model that placed Earth at the center.

These scientific breakthroughs laid the foundation for a new way of understanding the world through observation, experimentation, and mathematical reasoning. The Scientific Revolution's emphasis on empirical evidence and rational thought would go on to influence the Enlightenment era that followed.

The American Revolution

The American Revolution was a pivotal event that put Enlightenment ideas into practice on a grand scale. It was influenced by several factors:

1. Colonial Identity: Many colonists saw themselves more as Virginians or Pennsylvanians rather than British subjects.

2. Economic Tensions: British laws like the Navigation Act of 1651 and the Stamp Act of 1765 created resentment among colonists who felt unfairly taxed.

3. Enlightenment Ideals: Concepts of natural rights, representation, and just government fueled revolutionary sentiment.

Quote: "Taxation without representation" became a rallying cry for colonists who felt the British government was violating their rights.

Key events and documents in the lead-up to revolution:

• 1765: Stamp Act passed, requiring colonists to pay a tax on paper documents
• 1776: Thomas Paine publishes "Common Sense," applying Enlightenment logic to politics and calling for independence
• 1776: Declaration of Independence written, incorporating Enlightenment ideas such as:
  • John Locke's concept of natural rights
  • Equality
  • The right to rebel against unjust government
  • Liberty and reason

Highlight: The Declaration of Independence serves as a prime example of Enlightenment philosophy put into political action, justifying revolution based on reason and natural rights.

Establishing a New Government

After gaining independence, the United States went through several stages in creating its government:

1. Articles of Confederation (1781):

   • First constitution of the United States
   • Created a weak central government with only a legislative branch
   • Faced difficulties in passing laws and collecting taxes

2. Constitutional Convention (1787):

   • Met to revise the Articles of Confederation
   • Resulted in drafting an entirely new constitution
   • Drew heavily on Enlightenment thinkers like Locke, Montesquieu, and Rousseau

3. U.S. Constitution:

   • Established three separate branches of government: Executive, Legislative, and Judicial
   • Incorporated a system of checks and balances to prevent any one branch from becoming too powerful

Definition: Checks and balances refer to the system in which each branch of government has some measure of influence over the other branches, ensuring no single branch becomes too powerful.

The American Revolution and the subsequent formation of the United States government represented a real-world application of Enlightenment principles. It demonstrated how ideas about natural rights, social contracts, and limited government could be used to create a new political system, inspiring further revolutions and democratic movements around the world.