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the crown" because of its many resources and 300 million people to buy British products Science, Technology, and the Environment • A technological revolution has been occurring over the past 50 years • Communication, transportation, and space have seen the biggest areas of change • Communication has seen huge changes since the first satellites were put into orbit in the late 1950s • Cable television, cell phones, and the internet have linked the global world together more than ever • The development of computers has occurred at unprecedented speeds, they are faster and smaller than ever before • The internet has changed the world in many ways, millions work at home and shop online • Technology has also transformed the world of health and medicine • Prior to WW2, surgeons rarely performed operations on sensitive areas such as the brain and the eyes • With the development of powerful microscopes, lasers, and ultrasound, as well as CAT scans and MRJ techniques, doctors get a whole new look inside the human body • Genetic engineering has also evolved, scientists have studied and altered human traits • Cloning has allowed us to reproduce plants and animals, but has also brought up moral issues ● Throughout WW2, Germany would fully occupy northern France and leave the southern half to the French (Vichy France-a semi-independent state that saw an authoritarian regime take over) Battle of Britain • Following an amazing series of victories: Austria, Czechoslovakia, Poland, Denmark, Norway, Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, and France, Germany had only one enemy left- Great Britain • GB's new Prime Minister, Winston Churchill, declared "We shall never surrender" • Jn the summer of 1940, the German Luftwaffe, or air force, began bombing Britain • The RAF, Royal Air Force, although outnumbered, fought back • Throughout the summer months the bombing continued, first strictly bombing military targets, but then turning to civilian targets, including London • Germany's next move would be to invade his "friend" the USSR • On June 22, 1941, German tanks and planes moved into the Soviet Union • Within weeks, German troops had advanced over 500 miles • The Soviet army retreated, using the same scorched-earth policy that had been used against Napoleon back in 1812 • Hitler failed to conquer any major Soviet cities, yet he waged war on Moscow and Leningrad • Citizens of Leningrad were completely cut off from Allied help and were forced to eat cats, dogs, crows, and rats • As 1941 came to an end, only one Axis Power nation had yet to make an appearance in the war- Japan o Modern Technology- Mass communication to spread ideology, use of propaganda, advanced weaponry o State Control of Society- State-run business, religion, housing, education, youth groups, etc • Leaders such as Joseph Stalin, Benito Mussolini, Adolf Hilter, and Francisco Franco would have varying levels of success using this style of government Joseph Stalin • His name means "man of steel" • Created a totalitarian state, he controlled all aspects of the Soviet Union • Used Great Purge in 1930's to rid the country of "enemies"- led to the death of millions of Soviet citizens • Under a command economy, Stalin's Five-Year Plans sped up industrial production- became an industrial power • Created collectivization, all farmland is government land- no private ownership Rise of Fascism in Europe • In some countries, people turned to more extreme forms of government, one was called Fascism, a form of totalitarianism Key traits of Fascism included: o A focus on nationalism o Use of indoctrination o Was often supported by industrialists and the military • Fascism gained popularity because it is promised to revive the economy, punish those responsible for hard times, and restore order/ national pride North America: o Rio de Janeiro o Lima 23 independent countries including the islands in the Caribbean Sea • The largest and most powerful nation in NA is the United States with the 3rd largest and 3rd most populated with 33 million people English, Spanish, and French are the most spoken languages • Canada, the US, and Mexico have been linked by NAFTA (Trade agreement between the 3 nations) Some of the largest cities: o Mexico City Africa: 54 o New York o Los Angeles o Chicago independent countries, many of which have only been independent for the past 50 years • Js the 2nd largest continent and was home to one of history's oldest civilizations, ancient Egypt • Due to the Atlantic Slave Trade and Imperialism, Africa is far behind in things like technology Js one of the poorest continents and has faced civil wars, famine, and ethnic cleansing recently • High unemployment rates • Some of the largest cities: o Lagos (Nigeria) o Cairo Kinshasa (Congo) o Luanda (Angola) Napoleon Restored Order ● Napoleon issued a number of reforms: o Established a national bank and improved tax collection o Created govt. run schools called lychees o Signed concordat with Pope to bring back the church o Created a comprehensive system of laws called the Napoleonic Code. This created uniform laws, limited individual freedoms, restricted speech and press, and restored slavery in French colonies. Women's rights were excluded under these laws • To pay for his operations in Europe, he sold the Louisiana Territory to the US for $15 million Napoleon's Empire Collapses • Despite creating a massive empire, Napoleon wanted more • He would make three costly mistakes that would eventually lead to his downfall: o Jn 1806, the Continental System was his effort to blockade (prevent trade and communication) the British coast and destroy GB's economy. Jt failed o Jn 1808, he accidentally started a war with Spain by trying to threaten Portugal (Lost 100,000's of troops) o Jn 1812, he invaded Russia (world's largest country), led to the loss of almost a half a million troops after Russians used scorched-earth policy and the Russian winter ended the attack The US intervened in all 3 locations due to a fear called the domino theory, if one country fell, others might as well Life in the West • France was a country searching for an identity after WW2 under the leadership of Charles de Gaulle Jn West Germany, which became an official country in 1949, they experienced an "economic miracle" by the 1960's • Great Britain faced huge debt and rebuilding after WW2, they turned towards liberalism and created what was called a "modern welfare state", which means the government took responsibility for providing a minimum standard of living for all of its people • The election of the first female Prime Minister, Margaret Thatcher, in 1979, brought about a reduction of the welfare concept as GB turned more conservative in the 1980's Finally, the US continued to flourish after WW2 and FDR's New Deal programs continued to influence the country • Between 1945 and 1973, real wages grew 3% a year, an economic boom was realized due to a more powerful federal government and labor unions that won rights for workers • All over the Western world, a consumer society emerged, and more people became consumers as the use of credit expanded. Even the women's liberation movement gained steam in the 1970s and 80s as women's roles at work, home, and in politics changed Life in the East • Following WW2, Stalin focused the energy of Soviet workers on heavy industry, mainly geared toward the military • GB had a supply of money, or capital, to invest with and many entrepreneurs, who created new businesses • GB had access to natural resources (coal and iron ore) as well as access to rivers and harbors • GB controlled the following factors of production: o Land o Labor o Capital (Wealth) Cotton Production and Factories • Manufacturing cotton cloth was a two-step process, spinners made cotton thread from raw cotton and weavers wove the thread into cloth • This used to happen in people's homes and was known as the cottage industry • The textile (clothing) industry saw the first widespread changes in production. New inventions included the flying shuttle, spinning, jenny, water frame, spinning mule, power loom, and cotton gin • Factories, or large buildings that housed these machines were created, working at home was no longer an option. Cities would be built around these new factories • The only thing missing was a power source for these new machines. The improvements of the steam engine would prove vital to solving that problem • A former newspaper editor named Benito Mussolini created Fascism in Italy in the early 1920s • At the time of Mussolini's rise to power, a little-known political leader with a track record of failures was establishing himself in Germany, he was Adolf Hitler Hitler joined the National Socialist German Worker's Party, or Nazi Party, in 1919 • Nazism was the German form of Fascism, they adopted the swastika as their symbol and created their own militia called the Storm Troopers or Brownshirts • Jn the mid-1920s, Hitler spent 9 months in jail, where he wrote Mein Kampf (My Struggle) • Jn the book, he called Germans, or Aryans, the "master race", declared non-Aryans (Jews, Slavs, Gypsies) inferior and stated that the Versailles Treaty was an outrage Ch. 16: Nationalism Around the World (1919-1939) Nationalism in the Middle East ● Following WW1, the Ottoman Empire ceased to exist, becoming the modern-day nation of Turkey • Throughout the war, territories such as the Arabian Peninsula and Palestine had broken away from the OE • Jt was discovered that during WW1, atrocities had been going on within the Ottoman Empire against Christian religious minorities • What has since been called the Armenian Genocide, began in 1915 as the Muslim Ottoman govt acted against Armenians • Countries had been calling on the Ottomans to stop the persecution of its Christian religious minorities as early as the mid-1800s • Plantation crops like tea, indigo, coffee, cotton, and jute were extremely valuable to the British Empire, but not beneficial to the indigenous (native) people of India • Another crop the British exported from India was opium, which was a strong, addictive pain reliever used by doctors at the time Turmoil and Change in Mexico • Mexico had to deal with the "Big Bully" to the north, as the US was referred to by Latin American nations • Mexican revolutionary Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna helped fight for independence from Spain in 1812 and he became Mexico's president in 1833 • Santa Anna was the leader of Mexico during the conflict over Texas and the war with the US in 1848 • The War with Mexico, between the Us and Mexico, led to the US adding Texas and the entire southwest (the Mexican Cession) in 1848 • The Mexican Revolution began in 1911 under leaders such as Emiliano Zapata and "Pancho" Villa • The battle cry of this revolution was "Tierra y Libertad" or "Land and Liberty" Ch. 13: Challenge and Transition in East Asia: (1800-1914) • Jn an effort to find a product the Chinese would want, the British began smuggling opium into China. By 1835 nearly 12 million Chinese were hooked • The Opium War occurred between China and Gb in 1839. The British easily won this naval war. The Treaty of Nanjing gave GB the island of Hong Kong and access to additional Chinese ports Japan's Pacific Campaign • While Germany and Italy created an empire in Europe and Africa, Japan eyed a Pacific Empire • Earlier invasions of Manchuria and China were just the start • Before moving into SE Asia, Japan decided to attack its only potential threat in that region- the US • On December 7, 1941, the Japanese Navy attacked the US Pacific Fleet in Pearl Harbor, Hawaii • Jn two hours, the Japanese sank or damaged 19 ships and killed over 2,300 Americans By early 1942, Japan added the Philippines, Guam, Wake Island, the Dutch East Indies, and most of the rest of SE Asia • As the US was entering the war, Japan was getting ready to move against India • Japan controlled an empire of more than one million square miles in size and populated by 150 million people • The year 1942 would mark a major turning point in the war, both in the Pacific and in Europe. What had been an Axis-dominated first three years of the war would quickly turn in the Allies favor Allied Victory in Europe • Despite continued calls by Stalin for an Allied invasion of France, Jtaly became the next target • Jn the summer of 1943, the Allies landed in Sicily and took the island quickly • Jn response to these intrusions, the young emperor of Japan took action. His chosen name, Meiji, meant enlightened rule. His 45-year reign was the Meiji era • Japan would copy the following institutions: o Germany's strong centralized government o Great Britain's navy o Germany's army o The US's educational system Ch. 14: World War 1 and the Russian Revolution (1914-1922) World War 1 Begins • The Age of Progress, from 1870-1914, created a mindset that nothing bad could happen . Under the surface, there were problems, such as: o Growing Militarism- To protect their new interests, European nations built up their militaries to defend their new empires. Nations practiced conscription, (draft) o Tangled Alliances- Agreements were made between nations to "help" in case of trouble- 2 main alliances o Jmperialism- The movement from the end of the 19th century led to rivalries among European nations o Rise of Nationalism- Growing patriotism within European nations along with new independence movements in Eastern Europe created new tensions • Triple Alliance- Germany, A-H, and Italy • Triple Entente- GB, France, and Russia • The Germans first invaded France, hoping to knock them out of the war before Russia mobilized • Within weeks, the Germans were just outside Paris, but were stopped at the Battle of the Marne- September 1914 • Both sides dug in, creating a series of trenches that would be called the Western Front • Trench warfare would become the new style of warfare • The land between the trenches was nicknamed "no man's land", to be stuck there meant a quick death • The Western Front became a 500 mile long series of trenches that were fought out of for four years • The tank, an armed vehicle, could cross any type of terrain A "World" War • The Eastern Front was a series of trenches running through eastern Germany, Russia and the Ottoman Empire • By 1916, the Russian war effort was near collapse. Russian troops were short on ammunition, food, guns, clothes, boots, and blankets • Russia used its one strength- a large military population, to occupy Germany and keep pressure off of GB and France The US Joins the War • Submarine warfare had been used since the start of the war. In 1915, the Germans sunk the British passenger liner Lusitania, killing nearly 1,200 people By 1917, the Germans were getting desperate, they resumed unrestricted submarine warfare, this meant they would sink any ship without warning • The incident became known as the Zimmerman Note • A telegram was intercepted from the German foreign secretary to Mexico Colors: History Notes Green-Vocabulary Yellow- Fill-in, Multiple Choice, and True and False ( and F) Answers Red-Essay Material Ch. 8: Enlightenment and Revolutions: (1550-1800) The Scientific Revolution: • Prior to the 15th and 16th centuries, scholars decided what was true or false by referring to Greek and Roman knowledge or the Bible • Old beliefs included: o The Earth being immovable and the geocentric theory (Stated that the Earth was in the center of the universe) Developments that encouraged new ways of thinking included: o The Age of Exploration and the inventions of the telescope, microscope, and printing press • Nicolaus Copernicus, Johannes Kepler, Galileo Galilei, and Jsaac Newton were all mathematicians who impacted what became known as the Scientific Revolution • Jn 1543, Copernicus published a book outlining the heliocentric theory, which stated that the earth revolved around the sun • Kepler confirmed the heliocentric theory and also created a set of laws of planetary motion, including the elliptical orbit theory • Galileo used telescopes to show that our moon had mountains, other moons existed, and planets were made up of substance, just like the earth • On a day that became known as Red Sunday, prominent Armenian officials were arrested in the OE • Armenians faced forced conversion to Islam, separation from their families, etc (Supposedly to ensure Turkish supremacy) • The Ottoman Empire used forced marches, deportation, and concentration camps to persecute the Armenians • Estimates are that 1.5 million Armenians were killed between 1915- 1923 during the Armenian Genocide • This was not the first, nor would it be the last, act of ethnic cleansing against a specific minority group in Europe Nationalism in Africa and Asia • The Treaty of Versailles stripped Germany of all its colonies in Africa, but they were turned into mandates by the L of N • The concept of negritude, or pride in African culture, became popular after WW1, and Africans began to unify for freedom • Jn 1920, the book Declaration of the Rights of the Negro Peoples of the World by Marcus Garvey called for Pan-Africansim- a call for uniting all of Africa as one large nation • The movement for change in SE Asia was led by the Communists in the USSR. Lenin had created the Comintern, or Communist International, to spread the ideas of Communism • By the end of the 1920s, almost every colony in Asia had the beginnings of a Communist Party- it was a unifier in the region • The greatest result of this Comintern occurred in French Indochina (eventually Vietnam, Cambodia, and Laos) and China • A freedom movement also began in the nation of India, where the Jndian people formed the JNC (Indian National Congress) • Indian Mohanda Gandhi used a process called civil disobedience to try to convince the British to set Jndia free • The Church did not respond well to these new discoveries. Both the Catholic and Protestant leaders were frightened, because their ideas went against the popular beliefs of the Church Jn 1992, the Catholic Church finally acknowledged that Galileo's ideas were correct. (Only 400 years later!) • English scientist Jsaac Newton discovered the law of universal gravitation, or gravity. This stated that the same force ruled the motion of all planets and matter. The amount of attraction depends on the mass of the object and the distance between them The Ideas of the Enlightenment • The Enlightenment was a new intellectual movement that stressed reason, thought, and the power of individuals to solve problems. Also known as the Age of Reason • Began as a European movement, but would spread to the rest of the world throughout the 18th century New Views on Government Thomas Hobbes: • Humans are naturally selfish and wicked . Govt. is there to control people • A social contract exists where people give govt. the authority to rule over them • Gandhi led the Salt March in 1930 to protest a British tax on salt, he encouraged Indians to stop buying English products Ch. 17: World War 2 and the Holocaust (1939-1945) German/ Japanese Paths to War • World War 2 featured a war in Europe and a war in Asia, the Germans and Japanese would start these conflicts • Adolf Hitler was intent on creating an empire of the Aryan race, he knew he needed to expand Germany to do this • Jn 1936, Hilter sent troops into the Rhineland (a demilitarized zone created between Germany and France), but there was no response • In 1936, Germany and Italy formed an alliance after Italy invaded Ethiopia, called the Rome-Berlin Axis, both countries would jointly support a fascist dictator in the Spanish Civil War • Germany then signed an agreement with Japan in 1936 to promise to be a common front against communism (Axis Powers) • Jn 1938, Hitler annexed Austria (his home country), they agreed to the Anschluss (union) after being threatened with invasion • Hitler next turned toward Czechoslovakia (at first attempting to return the Sudetenland- former German territory), but eventually invading Czechoslovakia in 1938 • At the Munich Conference, Hitler promised this move would be his last and European leaders believed him, but he lied • Instead of stopping this aggression, France and GB practiced appeasement, giving in to an aggressor in order to keep the peace (a consequence of WW1) • Mussolini was overthrown shortly after and Italy surrendered on September 3, 1943 • D-Day, or the invasion of Normandy in northern France, occurred on June 6, 1944 • Thousands of ships, planes, tanks, and landing crafts as well as over 3 million men were set to land in France • A combination of American, British, French, and Canadian troops landed on the beaches that morning • The Germans had prepared for this for three years, building the Atlantic Wall to protect their new empire • Germany's final effort at victory occurred at the Battle of the Bulge in December 1944 • By March 1945, the Allies had entered Germany, 3 million Allied troops from the SW and 6 million Soviet troops from the E • On May 9, 1945, the surrender was signed in Berlin, VE Day, Victory in Europe Day was celebrated Allied Victory in the Pacific • The turning point in the war Pacific was the Battle of Midway, fought in June 1942 • The Allies practiced "island hopping", moving from location to location and taking back the islands that Japan had conquered • Famous battles include Guadalcanal, Tarawa, and Saipan • As the Allies moved closer to the Japanese islands by 1944, the Japanese grew more desperate. The Japanese used kamikazes, or suicide pilots, who would fly their planes into American ships • Two major battles were fought just prior to a possible invasion of Japan, Jwo Jima and Okinawa • On April 2, 1917, President Woodrow Wilson asked Congress to declare war on Germany • Jt would take the US months to mobilize its armed forces and get men and supplies to Europe • The Allied war effort faced a serious blow just prior to the American forces arriving- the collapse of Russia War Affects the Home Front • WW1 was a total war, which meant that all of a nation's resources were devoted to the war effort • Everyone at home supported the war effort, and rationing certain items was common- saving important items for their troops on the front lines • Governments suppressed anti-war movements. News was censored and the use of propaganda, or one-sided information, helped to keep support for the war strong World War 1 Ends • The second Battle of the Marne was fought in July 1918. Over 140,000 fresh American troops helped the Allies to a huge victory • The Bulgarians and Ottomans withdrew from the war first • Jn October, A-H suffered a revolution and withdrew, on November 9, 1918, the German Kaiser stepped down • Two days later, on November 11, 1918 at 11:00 (11/11/11), an armistice, or agreement to stop fighting, was signed. WW1 was officially over • In these two battles, the Japanese lost over 100,000 troops. It was feared that an invasion of Japan might cost the US over 500,000 men • Throughout the war, on a secret military base in New Mexico, the US had been working on a new technology called the atomic bomb, or A-bomb • President Harry Truman, on August 6, 1945 decided to use it • A bomb was dropped on the city of Hiroshima, and three days later a second was dropped on Nagasaki Ch. 18 and 20: The Cold War (1945-1989) Cold War: Superpowers Face Off • WW2 did not only cause massive destruction and unbelievable loss of life, it also caused a rift between the two most powerful nations- the US and the USSR • Both were Superpowers (both had nukes by 1949), the US had little WW2 damage/ strong economy, USSR was expanding in Eastern Europe- spreading Communism • The two countries had very different philosophies, the US was democratic/capitalist while the USSR was communist • Joseph Stalin, as the war ended, installed communist governments in several neighboring satellite states: Albania, Bulgaria, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Romania, Poland, and Yugoslavia ● Germany, following the war, was split into two separate nations- East and West Germany. The East was communist (occupied by the USSR) while the West was democratic (and occupied by Allied nations) John Locke: • Felt people could learn from their mistakes • As reasonable beings, we can govern ourselves • We are born with natural rights: life, liberty, and property and those rights should be protected • They developed the social-cultural theory (Basically says people allow themselves to be governed) • Early composers who used the Baroque style included Johann Sebastian Bach and George Friedrich Handel • Later on, classical composers such as Franz Joseph Haydn, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, and Ludwig van Beethoven used a new, lighter, more elegant style of music The American Revolution • Though the idea of enlightened absolutism, or leaders in Europe voluntarily embracing the new ideas of the Enlightenment, did exist, most rulers chose to keep a tight grip on their power • The Seven Years War in Europe would be known as the French and Indian War in North America. A victory by England cemented that country as the world's leading colonial power • This history of England and the 13 Colonies is long and complicated Reasons for the Revolution • Many people saw themselves more as Virginians and Pennsylvanians rather than British due to the age of the colony • Jn 1651, the Navigation Act was passed by Parliament. It stated that the colonists could only sell their products to Britain South Africa • A policy known as apartheid was instituted in 1948, which called for a complete separation of races- schools, public areas, etc • The ANC- African National Congress-was formed as early as 1912 to fight for the rights of black Africans • Their leader was Nelson Mandela who was imprisoned by the white government for his protests • Despite the adoption of a new constitution, South Africa still faces several problems today including: o Among the world's highest rates of murder and rape o 40% unemployment o 60% live below the poverty level o Limited foreign investment o An HIV/ AIDS epidemic Ch. 22: Contemporary Global Issues: (1981-2021) South America: • 12 independent nations as well as a few territorial possessions • Dominated in size and wealth by Brazil (world's 7th largest economy) • Js mainly an agricultural economy Growing wheat, coffee, and corn while raising livestock dominates many SA nation's economies • Trades with both the US and European nations, which have influenced the continent heavily since the 1500's Some of the largest cities: o Sao Paulo o Buenos Aires • British Prime Minister Winston Churchill gave a famous speech in 1946, stating that Europe was now divided by an "iron curtain" separating democratic W Europe and communist & Europe • The policy of the United States at the beginning of the Cold War was one of containment, meaning we wanted to stop the spread of communism • President Harry Truman issued the Truman Doctrine, which stated that we would provide aid to any nation that resisted the spread of communism • Under the Marshall Plan, the United States gave to rebuilding Western European nations ($12.5 billion) Jn 1948 the US, GB, and France decided to withdraw from their German-occupied zones and allow them to become West Germany. The USSR resisted and tried to block access to West Berlin, the allies used the Berlin Airlift to drop supplies to people in that city until the USSR backed down • Two major post-war alliances were created in the late 1940's, NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization) which was made up of the US and ten other nations and the Warsaw Pact made up of the USSR and seven other nations Jn 1949, the USSR exploded its first atomic bomb and three years later, the US exploded a hydrogen bomb (1,000 times more powerful than the A-bomb). The USSR developed one the next year. A nuclear arms race began • The development of JCBMs (missiles that could reach other continents) by both countries escalated the tension, and a policy of deterrence began (the idea that a huge collection of weapons on both sides would prevent a war from happening) • The USSR built the Berlin Wall separating East and West Berlin in 1961 to prevent people from fleeing from East Berlin. This wall became a symbol of the division between the two ideologies A Flawed Peace • Jt is estimated that 14 million people were killed, another 21 million were wounded • The cost of the war was calculated at nearly $338 billion • After 11/11/11, the shooting may have stopped, but the terms of peace still had to be worked out • A conference was held in Versailles in 1919, delegates representing 32 countries debated the terms • A group known as the Big Three led the negotiations • Those three are: o Woodrow Wilson- US o Georges Clemenceau- France o David Lloyd George- GB • Back in 1918, President Wilson had begun work on a peace plan that became known as the Fourteen Points . Some of those points are: o Reduced militaries o More freedom within colonies- less imperialism o Creation of an association of nations to deal with future • These concepts closely matched the previously successful Congress of Vienna, which was held following the French Revolution • Stalin died in 1953, and Nikita Khrushchev took power and began a program of de-Stalinization. While some social changes occurred, the focus on military spending continued, but the Soviet economy did not improve • Throughout the 1970s, a relaxation of relations between the USSR and the US known as detente, occurred. We even signed agreements to limit the production of nuclear weapons • A slight opening to Western ideas occurred (music, dress, and art) but the government continued to crack down on dissidents (people who spoke out against the government) • When the USSR invaded Afghanistan in 1979, the good relations ended abruptly. The US boycotted the Olympic Games in Moscow in 1980. We also secretly enjoyed watching the Soviets struggle in Afghanistan for 10 years (it became the Soviet's Vietnam) showing the limitations of even the superpowers • Tensions would rise again in the 1980s after President Ronald Reagan referred to the USSR as the "evil empire" • Following the death of Stalin, countries such as Poland, Hungary, and Czechoslovakia began to seek more separation from their Soviet neighbors Coal, Jron, and Railroads • As the coal industry boomed, it led to another transformation, this time in the iron industry. Jron ore, a resource in GB, was refined using a process called puddling, this was when impurities were burned away creating a higher-quality iron- that would be used to make new machines • This new production of high-quality iron would lead to another industry being created, the railroad industry, which needed iron to produce the trains/rail lines- transportation would never be the same again • The first steam-driven locomotive was built by Richard Trevithick in 1804. Engineer George Stephenson built the first railroad line. It extended 27 miles from Yorkshire to the port of Stockton • Stephenson's locomotive the Rocket won a competition in 1829 for the new Liverpool to Manchester line. The Rocket traveled 16 mph Benefits of the RR industry: o Cheaper transportation of products o 100,000's of new jobs o Agriculture and fishing industries benefited o Helped move people Social Impact of Industrialization • Most urban areas doubled in population, this period was one of urbanization, or city building and the movement of people to cities • Usually within these cities, factories were built in clusters, near water or coal resources. London was the most important city, its population reached 1 million by 1800, then 2.5 million by 1850 • There was a lack of adequate housing, education, and police protection • The average life span for a working-class person was 17 yrs, while it was 38 yrs in nearby rural areas • The average workweek was 14 hours and 6 days • A tremendous amount of wealth was generated in what has been called industrial capitalism, a free economy based on industry. Factory owners, shippers, and merchants gathered most of this new money. A growing middle class, which consisted of skilled workers, business people, wealthy farmers, and professionals, was created • The working class, or laborers, saw very little improvement in their living and working conditions. This led to early calls for socialism, which is government involvement in the economy • Positive effects of the JR: o Job creation, more choices, and raised standard of living o Technological progress and invention o Healthier diets and cheaper clothing o Larger tax revenue for govts. -more infrastructure • Negative effects of the JR: o More pollution- due to mainly coal burning o Child labor o Overcrowded cities, sanitation issues, and more diseases o Jmpacting the environment, like deforestation and rivers/streams Nationalism and Political Revolutions • The country was divided among Federalists, those who favored a strong central government, and Republicans, those who wanted the state government to have most of the power • The issue of slavery further divided the nation, abolitionism, a movement to end slavery, split the nation between North and South Ch. 15: The West Between the Wars (1919-1939) Pandemic Shocks World in 1918-19 • A global pandemic rocked the world from 1918-1919, following WW1. Known as the "Spanish Flu" or H1N1 Influenza pandemic, it first appeared in Europe, the US, and Asia in the spring of 1918 • By the fall of 1918, it had spread quickly across the globe. An estimated 500 million people (1/3 of the world's population) became infected and approximately 50 million died Jnstability After World War 1 • Following WW1, most of the industrialized world was suffering economically. Only the US and Japan came out of the war economically stable • New governments struggled to handle post-war conditions their countries faced- especially the Weimar Republic in Germany • This caused severe inflation, or a rapid increase in prices • This inflation hurt the German people, for example, a loaf of bread in Germany cost less than a mark in 1918 and 200 billion marks by 1923 • The Dawes Plan helped the German economy, the US sent $200 million in loans to Germany in 1924 • Two agreements, the Treaty of Locarno (1925) and the Kellogg-Briand Peace Pact (1928) brought a sense of peace and hope for the future • Women were earning the right to vote (19th Amendment passed in the US in 1920, GB in 1928) • A policy of brinksmanship, or going to the degree of all-out war became the official policy of both countries • The Soviets launched Sputnik, the world's first unmanned satellite into orbit around the earth. The US launched its own satellite the next year • In 1960, a US spy plane was shot down over the USSR, and its pilot Francis Gary Powers, was captured. The tensions rose between the two countries Major "Battles" of the Cold War • The US and USSR used serval proxy wars (using third parties to battle it out) to "fight" each other, examples would be in Korea, Vietnam, and Cuba • Jn 1950, communist North Korea invaded democratic South Korea. The US sent troops to South Korea to help • The US got the support of the UN and within two years South Korea's independence was preserved (democratic win) • Jn 1964, another battle erupted over Vietnam. Once again, communist North Vietnam threatened South Vietnam and the US sent troops again • The US withdrew from Vietnam in the early 1970's, leaving the Communists to take over the entire country (communist win) • Revolutionary leader Fidel Castro overthrew the dictator in Cuba in 1959, he immediately turned to the USSR for support- Cuba became Communist, it was located 90 miles off of the coast of Florida. The US tried several times to assassinate Castro • The US discovered these with photos from a spy plane. President John F. Kennedy ordered the Soviets to withdraw the missiles • The Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962 brought the world to the brink of nuclear war as the stand-off heated up, it ended peacefully (tie) Asia: 54 independent countries • The largest continent, Asia spreads from the Middle East to east Asian islands in the Pacific • The two biggest populated nations: o China (1.44 billion) o India (1.39 billion) • Nations such as Syria (JSJS), North Korea (Nuclear Weapons), and Jran have caused recent global conflicts • Russia is the world's largest country and it's almost twice as large as the US • Some of the largest cities: o Tokyo o Jakarta (Indonesia) o New Delhi o Karachi (Pakistan) Europe: 56 independent countries, including six with limited self-governance . From the Middle Ages to the mid-20th century, Europe dominated world history • Continent is quite small. It's 7% of the Earth's land surface • Several European nations joined the EU (European Union) after WW2 in an attempt to strengthen their global position • The Renaissance, Exploration, Enlightenment, FR, JR, Jmperialism, WW1, and WW2 all began 5in Europe • Some of the largest cities: o Istanbul o Moscow o London o St. Petersburg • The Current Global Challenges years 2020 and 2021 have been historically significant for many reasons. . Some of those reasons are: o Covid-19 Pandemic o Racial Tensions in the US o The Presidential Election of 2020 o The Refugee Jssue in Afghanistan o The US Border Covid-19 (Coronavirus) • Beginning back in early January 2020, new stories began to discuss a new flu-like illness (Novel Coronavirus) that seemed to originate in a Chinese city called Wuhan • The first case reported in the US occurred on January 21, 2020 • Ten days later, on January 31, the US declares a public health and a week later, the first American died of ● emergency Covid-19 • The WHO (World Health Organization) gave the new disease the name Covid-19 on February 11 By the end of February, the US only had 68 cases, while China had reported almost 80,000 cases and 2,800 deaths (Italy seemed to be the new "hot spot" outside of Asia with over 1,100 cases) Social distancing became the new normal By March 11, the NBA shuts down its game as players test positive. Even "March Madness" was canceled • Jn the US, daily briefings were held at all levels of government, including by President Trump and Ohio Governor Mike De Wine • The election of Abraham Lincoln in 1860 led to the US Civil War, which lasted from 1861-1865. The North won and slavery ended Nation Building in Latin America • The Enlightenment as well as the success of the AR and the ideas from the FR inspired Latin American colonies to seek independence as well • Latin America refers to the lands south of the US, where languages such as Spanish, French, and Portuguese were spoken • The first people to be inspired by the Enlightenment idea were called creoles, the descendants of Europeans who had permanently settled in the Americas • Creoles especially disliked the monarchs and peninsulares (Spanish and Portuguese officials who lived temporarily in the Americas to "get rich quick" before moving back to Europe) • The first independent state in Latin America was Haiti, which broke away from France during the FR in 1804 Ch. 11: Mass Society and Democracy: (1870-1914) Growth of Industrial Prosperity • A Second Industrial Revolution would occur leading to not only drastic changes in industry, but also solutions to many of the problems that occurred at the start of industrialization • While the 1st JR would bring us textiles, railroads, iron and coal, the 2nd JR would bring us steel, chemicals, electricity, and petroleum Ch. 19 and 21: A New Era of Independence and Nationalism (1945-2022) What about the Third World? • Following WW2, the world was divided into "three worlds", the industrialized capitalist world (US and allies), the communist world (USSR and allies), and then the Third World (developing nations, not aligned with anyone) • Some developed nations, like India and Indonesia, remained neutral, they were also called nonaligned nations The Collapse of the USSR • Throughout the Cold War, the Soviet premiers, along with the Politburo (the ruling committee of the USSR), ruled the USSR • After 3 different Soviet premiers led the USSR within three years in the 1980s 54 years old Mikhail Gorbachev took over Jn 1985, he announced a new policy called glasnost, or openness • Gorbachev introduced perestroika (economic restructuring) Finally, Gorbachev introduced democratization, or an opening up of the political system • The first challenge came from Lithuania, Estonia, and Latvia. In 1990, Lithuania declared its independence from the USSR • Gorbachev received criticism for trying to stop it and he resigned on Christmas Day of 1991, the USSR officially ceased to exist, and the US became the only remaining superpower in the world Asian Nations Gain Independence • Several Asian nations would gain independence after WW1, including India, the Philippines, Indonesia, and others- these people would ban together to fight for independence despite ethnic and religious diversity • After WW2, when the British agreed to give India its freedom, they partitioned the country, dividing it into a Hindu part and a Muslim part • Jn 1947, India officially gained its independence, the Muslim part became the nation of Pakistan • During the migration, violence broke out among the different religious groups, and an estimated 1 million people died • Mohandas Gandhi was quoted saying, "What is there to celebrate, J see nothing but a river of blood" . SE Asians had been "controlled" by both Europeans during Jmperialism and the Japanese during WW2 • Several colonies would achieve independence after WW2 as they saw communism help to solidify a feeling of nationalism there • The first colony to win their freedom was the Philippines, the US gave them independence on July 4, 1946 • For years, the Philippines lived under an authoritarian regime led by Ferdinand Marcos (basically a dictator). He was finally ousted in 1986 and replaced by elected leader Corazon Aquino Violence in the Middle East • Following WW2, several changes took place in the Middle East, including creating a new homeland for the world's Jews, Israel • As early as 1917, the Balfour Declaration had called for the creation of a homeland for Jews in Palestine • The US refused to get involved, we weren't even in the L of N, Americans supported isolationism, avoiding ties with foreigners. The neutrality acts guaranteed the US would not get involved • Hitler then signed a nonaggression pact with the USSR in 1939. Germany would never face a two-front war • Japan also began a series of aggressive moves as early as 1931 when they invaded northern China (Manchuria) Beginning World War 2 Interestingly enough, the same 4 MAJN causes of WW1 were back prior to the start of WW2, along with the effects of the Treaty of Versailles and the Great Depression, to cause the war • On September 1, 1939, Germany invaded Poland, which led to France and GB declaring war • Hitler unveiled his blitzkrieg, or lighting war, on the world in 1939. Jt consisted of quick, coordinated attacks on land, in the air, and at sea. Poland was overwhelmed As part of their pact with Germany, the Soviet Union moved into western Poland, as well as Lithuania, Latvia, and Estonia • Finland fell to the USSR after a drawn-out struggle that lasted until the spring of 1940, the USSR then relaxed • As spring arrived, Germany moved swiftly against Denmark, Norway, the Netherlands, Belgium, and Luxembourg • France and GB stood ready behind the Maginot Line, a series of fortifications built after WW1 along the German border • Jt took a heroic British effort to rescue almost half a million French troops at Dunkirk in early June of 1940 • By June 14, 1940, Germany had taken Paris. France surrendered on June 22, 1940 • The Stamp Act was passed in 1765. This stated that colonists had to pay a new tax to get an official stamp placed on all paper documents (in an effort to help pay off debts from the French and Indian War) • The colonists were outraged. They felt the taxes were a violation of their "natural rights". This was an example of taxation without representation Jn 1776, Thomas Paine published Common Sense, called on colonists to declare independence. Applied logic to politics • Enlightenment ideas influenced this movement, the Declaration of Independence, written in 1776, focused on several ideas from the European Enlightenment • Those ideas are: o John Locke's Natural Rights o Equality o The right to rebel against an unjust government o The ideas of liberty and reason Americans Create a Republic • Prior to the war ending, the 13 colonies had planned for how to govern their new nation. A constitution was ratified in 1781, called the Articles of Confederation. This was a republic style of govt., there was only a legislative branch. The govt. could not collect taxes and passing laws was difficult. 9 of the 13 states had to approve • Jn 1787, a Constitutional Convention met to revise the A of C. Using the theories of Locke, Montesquieu, and Rousseau, the delegates drafted a new constitution • This new government had three separate branches: o Executive o Legislative o Judicial • Henry Bessemer patented a new method of making steel, which is a combination of iron, carbon, and other alloys- basically a stronger metal. Steel would replace iron for building machines and engines • The assembly line allowed for the quick production of consumer goods, this was perfected by Henry Ford in 1913 At the turn of the 20th century (1900's), mass production of goods existed within almost all industrialized nations • Not everyone benefited from these changes, an example was Europe. Western Europe was highly productive and had a high standard of living, while Eastern Europe stayed mainly agricultural and had a much lower standard of living • The development of factories and mines created very difficult conditions for workers (long hours, low pay, unsafe conditions, child labor, etc.) • Changes did begin to happen slowly, the British passed the Factory Act of 1833 that removed young children from the workplace and limited the hours of adolescents Jn 1848, the Communist Manifesto was published. In it, the authors blamed the concept of industrial capitalism for the appalling conditions and demanded change • Karl Marx, the lead author, claimed that the oppressors (factory owners and the wealthy) were taking advantage of the oppressed (the working class). He claimed a revolution was coming • A movement toward socialism began, and workers joined socialist parties that called for changes in working conditions. Marxists believed change could only happen by revolt while revisionists believed workers just needed to organize and use the vote to bring about change • Labor unions, or trade unions, were organizations of workers within factories and mines that used collective bargaining and strikes to demand changes in the workplace • A built-in system of checks and balances allowed each branch to check the actions of the other two • A strong central government was created, but a federal system also existed. Power would be divided between national and state governments • Jn 1787, the new constitution became law, however, some changes still needed to be made. Under this new system, no individual rights were guaranteed The Bill of Rights, the first ten amendments to the Constitution, were added. Basic rights such as freedom of speech, press, and religion were added as well as legal protections for all citizens Ch. 9: French Revolution and Napoleon: (1789-1815) French Revolution Begins • There were several causes to why the French revolt • Those causes were: o An outdated social and political system called the Old Regime, which featured three large social classes that the French people were divided into. These classes were called estates The Estate System in France • The First Estate was made up of clergy or church officials. They were less than 1% of the population, but owned 10% of French lands and paid no taxes • The Second Estate was made up of rich nobles (royalty) and hereditary land owners. They accounted for approximately 2% of the population. They owned 25% of the land. Paid virtually of taxes • The Third Estate included 97% of the French population. This was a diverse group, including bourgeoisie, or apprentices, laborers, etc., and peasants (80% of the population). They paid as much as 50% of their income in taxes (taille- land tax) Other Causes of the FR • The Enlightenment also affected the FR, the same ideas of Locke, Voltaire, Montesquieu, etc. that influenced the AR affected the people of France • France also faced economic problems, there was a heavy tax burden on the Third Estate, crop failures led to an increase in the price of grain and consumer goods increased in cost • The lack of leadership by King Louis XVJ also hurt France. He spent excessive amounts of money, and put France into debt by assisting the Americans in their revolution. His wife, an Austrian woman named Marie Antoinette, was hated by the French people End of the Old Regime • The National Assembly quickly voted to end the Old Regime. They adopted the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, a bill of rights for the French people in 1789 • The document stated that men were "born and remaining free and equal in rights". They were guaranteed liberty, property, security, and resistance to oppression (straight from the Enlightenment). They also had free speech, religion, and were given equal justice. • Women complained they were being excluded from equal rights • Revolutionary leaders adopted the slogan "Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity" • The US was introduced to Dr. Anthony Fauci, who became known as the "nation's top infectious disease expert" and appeared at frequent White House briefings • Toward the end of March, the governor of Ohio shut down in-person schooling for the remainder of the year. Virtual learning would continue until late May 2020 • By early summer of 2020, unemployment in the US had reached 14%, the highest since the Great Depression • The US government passed several stimulus plans in 2020 and 2021 designed to help those who are struggling with a weakened economy, which increased our national debt • After a decline in cases in the spring of 2021, a "Delta" variant of the disease has seen cases rise throughout the summer • The US has almost 38 million cases and 633K deaths reported as of August 2021 Other Issues in the US • On May 25, 2020, Minnesota police officers arrested George Floyd on suspicion of passing fake currency at a store, in the minutes after the arrest, everything changed For almost eight minutes, a police officer kept a knee on Floyd's neck even though both Floyd and bystanders pleaded with the officers that he couldn't breathe • George Floyd later died on his way to the hospital. The video of the incident flooded social media, protests soon began in Minneapolis and across the country • The US Presidential election of 2020 was a highly contested race between incumbent Donald Trump and challenger Joe Biden Following the November election, Joe Biden was declared the winner, though Trump has claimed repeatedly that the results were incorrect and that he won by a large margin. The divide between our two political parties has further split our nation • A major issue since the election has been the steady increase in refugees trying the cross the border into the US in our southern states • Estimates are that over 1 million people have been arrested trying to illegally enter the US in 2021 (1.7 million arrests were made in 2020) Political Challenges in the Modern World • The contemporary world (The world today) began to take shape following the end of WW2 in 1945 • One of the most important organizations in the world today is the United Nations, an organization created back in 1945 after WW2 • Two of the most important goals of the UN are to keep peace and to support human dignity/ rights • Of the large number of member nations, 5 countries hold the most power • Those countries are: o US o Russia o England o France o China • The UN uses a peacekeeping force to help settle conflicts and support truces around the world • The National Assembly completed its new constitution in 1791 and Louis signed on to create a constitutional monarchy. He would share power with the new Legislative Assembly Terror Grips France • Jn early 1793, radical leader Maximilien Robespierre slowly gained power. His goal was to save the republic by eliminating its enemies • He sought to create a "republic of virtue" and this could only be done by wiping out all memories of France's history • He made the following changes: o He changed the calendar, creating twelve months of thirty days each. He removed the religious themes of the calendar o Eliminated Sundays from the French days of the week. 1st Estate was a thing of the past o All churches were closed throughout France o Changed the decks of cards to remove the "royalty". Other subtle cultural changes occurred o Created the Committee of Public Safety, this group was to save France from its enemies. 10,000's of people were executed in France, because they were not radical enough • This Reign of Terror had begun in 1793, and a year later the National Convention turned on Robespierre. He was guillotined in 1794 • Faced with chaos within and war in Europe, France would turn to Napoleon Bonaparte • The League of Nations, created after WW1, stood ready to address any potential conflicts worldwide- things looked very good as the world headed towards the end of the 1920s The Great Depression • In 1929, US factories were turning out 1/2 of the world's industrial goods- if the US fell, the world would fall • Wealth was unevenly distributed in the US- the richest 5% of the people owned 33% of the wealth (Today, 1% controls 38%) • 60% of all American families earned less than $2,000 a year • The US stock market, which had boomed during the 1920s, suddenly shifted downward. Jn October of 1929, a record 16 million stocks were sold in a single day, the GD began Rise of Dictatorial Regimes • A movement away from democratic governments occurred, a new form of dictatorship was known as totalitarianism Key traits of totalitarianism include: O Dictatorship and One-Party Rule- Absolute rule with no opposition o Dynamic Leader- Brings people together, convinces people to follow goals of the state o Jdeology- Leader sets the goals of the state, justifies government actions o State Control of Individuals- Demanded loyalty, basic liberties denied, sacrifice for the good of the state o Methods of Enforcement- Used police terror, censorship, and persecution • The city of Jerusalem would be an international city owned by neither state • As struggles between Jsrael and its Jslamic neighbors have continued, the Palestinians have continued to seek recognition and land- a movement for Pan-Arabism began in 1958 Jn 1964, the PLO, Palestinian Liberation Organization, was created ● Religion has also split this region even within the Islamic faith, as Sunni and Shia (Shi'ite) are two versions of Islam New Nations in Africa • The Negritude Movement began in the 1930s, which was an effort to celebrate pride in black culture, heritage, and values • During imperialism, Europeans used a combination of direct and indirect control, the colonies that had indirect control had a smoother transition to independence . Most African nations faced the classic problem of independence OR modernization, you had to give up one to get the other "The Choice" Independence- Do what you want to do when you want to with whoever you want to do it with OR Modernization- Continued to be taken care of, get access to modern technology, and live with limited freedom • The first colony south of the Sahara to win its freedom was the Gold Coast, which became the nation of Ghana in 1957 Napoleon's Downfall Napoleon had stirred a feeling of nationalism (patriotism and loyalty to a nation) around the continent of Europe • Napoleon surrendered and was exiled, or banished, to the island of Elba in the Mediterranean • When Louis XVJJJ (16) took over French govt., Napoleon escaped and returned to Paris ● • He was defeated again at Waterloo in 1815, was exiled again and died in 1812. The FR was over Ch. 10: Industrialization and Nationalism: (1700-1900) Beginnings of Industrialization • At the same time as the political revolutions in the Americas and Europe were occurring, a different type of revolution transformed the way people worked- the Jndustrial Revolution • Not every continent would experience the JR, some like Africa and Asia, would be exploited because of the JR (Jmperialism) • Jndustrialization would include positives (new career choices) and negatives (child labor) Why Great Britain? • The Agricultural Revolution in GB led to food beginning to be cheaper, families could afford to buy manufactured goods • The British population grew very quickly, with enclosure laws creating larger farms, people had to move to cities for work