Subjects
Biology
Chemistry
AP Chemistry
English
AP English Literature
AP Biology
Nov 30, 2025
110
2 pages
Arfa Momin @arfamomin_hkhz
Ready to master the chemistry of life? This guide breaks down the essential chemical components and processes that... Show more
Water is literally life-changing! Its polarity and hydrogen bonding give it special properties that make life possible. Water molecules stick to each other (cohesion), creating surface tension that lets insects walk on water and keeps oceans together. They also stick to other surfaces (adhesion), allowing capillary action that pulls water up plant roots.
Water's high specific heat means it resists temperature change, which helps moderate air temperatures and stabilizes oceans. Its high heat of vaporization enables cooling through evaporation (think sweating), while its heat of fusion stabilizes aquatic environments. As the "universal solvent," water dissolves minerals, flushes toxins, and transports nutrients to cells.
The macromolecules that make up living things contain primarily carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen, with phosphorus and sometimes sulfur. These elements form different types of bonds that determine molecular structure covalent bonds (shared electrons), ionic bonds (between charged ions), and hydrogen bonds (between partial charges).
Quick Tip Remember that water's polarity is the key to understanding all its life-supporting properties. The slightly positive hydrogen atoms and slightly negative oxygen create the hydrogen bonds that give water its unique characteristics!
Carbon is especially important in biology because it has four valence electrons, allowing it to form complex molecules. It moves through the environment as CO₂ and is used by organisms to build new molecules for storage and cell formation.
Isomers - molecules with the same formula but different structures - are biologically crucial. Structural isomers have different covalent bond arrangements, geometric isomers differ in arrangement around double bonds (cis or trans), and enantiomers are mirror images that can have dramatically different biological effects.
Macromolecules are formed through dehydration synthesis - a process where water is removed as monomers join together. The reverse process, hydrolysis, breaks these bonds by adding water back. These processes are fundamental to how your body builds and breaks down the molecules of life!
Carbohydrates store energy and provide structural support. Their monomers are monosaccharides (simple sugars), which combine to form disaccharides and polysaccharides. Nucleic acids (DNA and RNA) store genetic information and are made of nucleotide monomers.
Proteins perform countless functions - from enzymes to structural support. Their monomers are amino acids, which link together to form polypeptides. Protein structure has four levels
Lipids store energy long-term and include fats, oils, waxes, phospholipids, and steroids. Their structure varies based on fatty acid saturation. Unsaturated fats have double bonds creating kinks in the molecule (usually liquid at room temperature), while saturated fats have no double bonds (usually solid).
Remember This The unique properties of a protein come from its specific amino acid sequence and how those amino acids' R-groups interact. Hydrophobic R-groups huddle inside, while hydrophilic ones face outward—this folding determines the protein's function!
The diversity of macromolecules explains the amazing variety of structures and functions in living things. A protein's shape begins with DNA, which is transcribed to RNA, which is then translated into a specific sequence of amino acids. The amino acids' R-groups interact in different ways (ionic bonds, hydrogen bonds, hydrophobic interactions, and disulfide bridges), determining the protein's final structure and function.
Our AI companion is specifically built for the needs of students. Based on the millions of content pieces we have on the platform we can provide truly meaningful and relevant answers to students. But its not only about answers, the companion is even more about guiding students through their daily learning challenges, with personalised study plans, quizzes or content pieces in the chat and 100% personalisation based on the students skills and developments.
You can download the app in the Google Play Store and in the Apple App Store.
That's right! Enjoy free access to study content, connect with fellow students, and get instant help – all at your fingertips.
3
Smart Tools NEW
Transform this note into: ✓ 50+ Practice Questions ✓ Interactive Flashcards ✓ Full Mock Exam ✓ Essay Outlines
These are the notes for Campbell’s AP biology Chapter 2. Important key terms are highlighted.
AP BiologyLearn about why enzymes-controlled coupled? Know two laws of thermodynamics.
AP BiologyAP Bio 1.1
AP BiologyAtoms and Molecule Part 1
AP BiologyGen Bio 1-4
AP BiologyThere are two types of mixtures: heterogeneous and homogeneous. Heterogeneous mixtures have visually distinguishable components, while homogeneous mixtures appear uniform throughout.
AP BiologyApp Store
Google Play
The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
I think it’s very much worth it and you’ll end up using it a lot once you get the hang of it and even after looking at others notes you can still ask your Artificial intelligence buddy the question and ask to simplify it if you still don’t get it!!! In the end I think it’s worth it 😊👍 ⚠️Also DID I MENTION ITS FREEE YOU DON’T HAVE TO PAY FOR ANYTHING AND STILL GET YOUR GRADES IN PERFECTLY❗️❗️⚠️
Thomas R
iOS user
Knowunity is the BEST app I’ve used in a minute. This is not an ai review or anything this is genuinely coming from a 7th grade student (I know 2011 im young) but dude this app is a 10/10 i have maintained a 3.8 gpa and have plenty of time for gaming. I love it and my mom is just happy I got good grades
Brad T
Android user
Not only did it help me find the answer but it also showed me alternative ways to solve it. I was horrible in math and science but now I have an a in both subjects. Thanks for the help🤍🤍
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
I found this app a couple years ago and it has only gotten better since then. I really love it because it can help with written questions and photo questions. Also, it can find study guides that other people have made as well as flashcard sets and practice tests. The free version is also amazing for students who might not be able to afford it. Would 100% recommend
Aubrey
iOS user
Best app if you're in Highschool or Junior high. I have been using this app for 2 school years and it's the best, it's good if you don't have anyone to help you with school work.😋🩷🎀
Marco B
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This app is phenomenal down to the correct info and the various topics you can study! I greatly recommend it for people who struggle with procrastination and those who need homework help. It has been perfectly accurate for world 1 history as far as I’ve seen! Geometry too!
Paul T
iOS user
The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
I think it’s very much worth it and you’ll end up using it a lot once you get the hang of it and even after looking at others notes you can still ask your Artificial intelligence buddy the question and ask to simplify it if you still don’t get it!!! In the end I think it’s worth it 😊👍 ⚠️Also DID I MENTION ITS FREEE YOU DON’T HAVE TO PAY FOR ANYTHING AND STILL GET YOUR GRADES IN PERFECTLY❗️❗️⚠️
Thomas R
iOS user
Knowunity is the BEST app I’ve used in a minute. This is not an ai review or anything this is genuinely coming from a 7th grade student (I know 2011 im young) but dude this app is a 10/10 i have maintained a 3.8 gpa and have plenty of time for gaming. I love it and my mom is just happy I got good grades
Brad T
Android user
Not only did it help me find the answer but it also showed me alternative ways to solve it. I was horrible in math and science but now I have an a in both subjects. Thanks for the help🤍🤍
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
I found this app a couple years ago and it has only gotten better since then. I really love it because it can help with written questions and photo questions. Also, it can find study guides that other people have made as well as flashcard sets and practice tests. The free version is also amazing for students who might not be able to afford it. Would 100% recommend
Aubrey
iOS user
Best app if you're in Highschool or Junior high. I have been using this app for 2 school years and it's the best, it's good if you don't have anyone to help you with school work.😋🩷🎀
Marco B
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This app is phenomenal down to the correct info and the various topics you can study! I greatly recommend it for people who struggle with procrastination and those who need homework help. It has been perfectly accurate for world 1 history as far as I’ve seen! Geometry too!
Paul T
iOS user
Arfa Momin
@arfamomin_hkhz
Ready to master the chemistry of life? This guide breaks down the essential chemical components and processes that make life possible. You'll learn how water's unique properties support living systems, explore the four major biological macromolecules, and understand how their... Show more
Access to all documents
Improve your grades
Join milions of students
By signing up you accept Terms of Service and Privacy Policy
Water is literally life-changing! Its polarity and hydrogen bonding give it special properties that make life possible. Water molecules stick to each other (cohesion), creating surface tension that lets insects walk on water and keeps oceans together. They also stick to other surfaces (adhesion), allowing capillary action that pulls water up plant roots.
Water's high specific heat means it resists temperature change, which helps moderate air temperatures and stabilizes oceans. Its high heat of vaporization enables cooling through evaporation (think sweating), while its heat of fusion stabilizes aquatic environments. As the "universal solvent," water dissolves minerals, flushes toxins, and transports nutrients to cells.
The macromolecules that make up living things contain primarily carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen, with phosphorus and sometimes sulfur. These elements form different types of bonds that determine molecular structure: covalent bonds (shared electrons), ionic bonds (between charged ions), and hydrogen bonds (between partial charges).
Quick Tip: Remember that water's polarity is the key to understanding all its life-supporting properties. The slightly positive hydrogen atoms and slightly negative oxygen create the hydrogen bonds that give water its unique characteristics!
Carbon is especially important in biology because it has four valence electrons, allowing it to form complex molecules. It moves through the environment as CO₂ and is used by organisms to build new molecules for storage and cell formation.
Isomers - molecules with the same formula but different structures - are biologically crucial. Structural isomers have different covalent bond arrangements, geometric isomers differ in arrangement around double bonds (cis or trans), and enantiomers are mirror images that can have dramatically different biological effects.
Access to all documents
Improve your grades
Join milions of students
By signing up you accept Terms of Service and Privacy Policy
Macromolecules are formed through dehydration synthesis - a process where water is removed as monomers join together. The reverse process, hydrolysis, breaks these bonds by adding water back. These processes are fundamental to how your body builds and breaks down the molecules of life!
Carbohydrates store energy and provide structural support. Their monomers are monosaccharides (simple sugars), which combine to form disaccharides and polysaccharides. Nucleic acids (DNA and RNA) store genetic information and are made of nucleotide monomers.
Proteins perform countless functions - from enzymes to structural support. Their monomers are amino acids, which link together to form polypeptides. Protein structure has four levels:
Lipids store energy long-term and include fats, oils, waxes, phospholipids, and steroids. Their structure varies based on fatty acid saturation. Unsaturated fats have double bonds creating kinks in the molecule (usually liquid at room temperature), while saturated fats have no double bonds (usually solid).
Remember This: The unique properties of a protein come from its specific amino acid sequence and how those amino acids' R-groups interact. Hydrophobic R-groups huddle inside, while hydrophilic ones face outward—this folding determines the protein's function!
The diversity of macromolecules explains the amazing variety of structures and functions in living things. A protein's shape begins with DNA, which is transcribed to RNA, which is then translated into a specific sequence of amino acids. The amino acids' R-groups interact in different ways (ionic bonds, hydrogen bonds, hydrophobic interactions, and disulfide bridges), determining the protein's final structure and function.
Our AI companion is specifically built for the needs of students. Based on the millions of content pieces we have on the platform we can provide truly meaningful and relevant answers to students. But its not only about answers, the companion is even more about guiding students through their daily learning challenges, with personalised study plans, quizzes or content pieces in the chat and 100% personalisation based on the students skills and developments.
You can download the app in the Google Play Store and in the Apple App Store.
That's right! Enjoy free access to study content, connect with fellow students, and get instant help – all at your fingertips.
3
Smart Tools NEW
Transform this note into: ✓ 50+ Practice Questions ✓ Interactive Flashcards ✓ Full Mock Exam ✓ Essay Outlines
These are the notes for Campbell’s AP biology Chapter 2. Important key terms are highlighted.
AP BiologyLearn about why enzymes-controlled coupled? Know two laws of thermodynamics.
AP BiologyAP Bio 1.1
AP BiologyAtoms and Molecule Part 1
AP BiologyGen Bio 1-4
AP BiologyThere are two types of mixtures: heterogeneous and homogeneous. Heterogeneous mixtures have visually distinguishable components, while homogeneous mixtures appear uniform throughout.
AP BiologyApp Store
Google Play
The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
I think it’s very much worth it and you’ll end up using it a lot once you get the hang of it and even after looking at others notes you can still ask your Artificial intelligence buddy the question and ask to simplify it if you still don’t get it!!! In the end I think it’s worth it 😊👍 ⚠️Also DID I MENTION ITS FREEE YOU DON’T HAVE TO PAY FOR ANYTHING AND STILL GET YOUR GRADES IN PERFECTLY❗️❗️⚠️
Thomas R
iOS user
Knowunity is the BEST app I’ve used in a minute. This is not an ai review or anything this is genuinely coming from a 7th grade student (I know 2011 im young) but dude this app is a 10/10 i have maintained a 3.8 gpa and have plenty of time for gaming. I love it and my mom is just happy I got good grades
Brad T
Android user
Not only did it help me find the answer but it also showed me alternative ways to solve it. I was horrible in math and science but now I have an a in both subjects. Thanks for the help🤍🤍
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
I found this app a couple years ago and it has only gotten better since then. I really love it because it can help with written questions and photo questions. Also, it can find study guides that other people have made as well as flashcard sets and practice tests. The free version is also amazing for students who might not be able to afford it. Would 100% recommend
Aubrey
iOS user
Best app if you're in Highschool or Junior high. I have been using this app for 2 school years and it's the best, it's good if you don't have anyone to help you with school work.😋🩷🎀
Marco B
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This app is phenomenal down to the correct info and the various topics you can study! I greatly recommend it for people who struggle with procrastination and those who need homework help. It has been perfectly accurate for world 1 history as far as I’ve seen! Geometry too!
Paul T
iOS user
The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
I think it’s very much worth it and you’ll end up using it a lot once you get the hang of it and even after looking at others notes you can still ask your Artificial intelligence buddy the question and ask to simplify it if you still don’t get it!!! In the end I think it’s worth it 😊👍 ⚠️Also DID I MENTION ITS FREEE YOU DON’T HAVE TO PAY FOR ANYTHING AND STILL GET YOUR GRADES IN PERFECTLY❗️❗️⚠️
Thomas R
iOS user
Knowunity is the BEST app I’ve used in a minute. This is not an ai review or anything this is genuinely coming from a 7th grade student (I know 2011 im young) but dude this app is a 10/10 i have maintained a 3.8 gpa and have plenty of time for gaming. I love it and my mom is just happy I got good grades
Brad T
Android user
Not only did it help me find the answer but it also showed me alternative ways to solve it. I was horrible in math and science but now I have an a in both subjects. Thanks for the help🤍🤍
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
I found this app a couple years ago and it has only gotten better since then. I really love it because it can help with written questions and photo questions. Also, it can find study guides that other people have made as well as flashcard sets and practice tests. The free version is also amazing for students who might not be able to afford it. Would 100% recommend
Aubrey
iOS user
Best app if you're in Highschool or Junior high. I have been using this app for 2 school years and it's the best, it's good if you don't have anyone to help you with school work.😋🩷🎀
Marco B
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This app is phenomenal down to the correct info and the various topics you can study! I greatly recommend it for people who struggle with procrastination and those who need homework help. It has been perfectly accurate for world 1 history as far as I’ve seen! Geometry too!
Paul T
iOS user
Algebra
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