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How We Learn: Classical Conditioning, Pavlov's Dog, and More

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Selina

10/9/2025

AP Psychology

Unit 4 Outline: Learning

168

Oct 9, 2025

6 pages

How We Learn: Classical Conditioning, Pavlov's Dog, and More

user profile picture

Selina

@suuhleena

Overall Summary

Classical conditioning and operant conditioningform the cornerstone... Show more

Page 1
Page 2
Page 3
Page 4
Page 5
Page 6
1 / 6
Unit 4 Outline
Learning
Module 26 How We Learn and Classical Conditioning
1. How do we learn?
Learn
●
O
■ Experiments in observations (obser

Pavlov's Legacy and Applications

This page explores the lasting impact of Pavlov's work on classical conditioning theory and its applications. Key concepts discussed include:

Extinction and Spontaneous Recovery:

  • Extinction occurs when the conditioned response diminishes after repeated presentation of the CS alone.
  • Spontaneous recovery is the reappearance of an extinguished CR after a period of time.

Example: If a dog stops salivating to a bell that no longer predicts food, but then suddenly salivates again to the bell after a break, this demonstrates extinction followed by spontaneous recovery.

Higher-Order Conditioning: A new neutral stimulus can become a CS by association with a previously conditioned stimulus, without direct pairing with the US.

Vocabulary: Higher-order conditioning alsocalledsecondorderconditioningalso called second-order conditioning extends the reach of classical conditioning beyond direct associations.

Generalization and Discrimination:

  • Generalization involves producing the same response to similar stimuli.
  • Discrimination is learning that one stimulus predicts the US while another does not.

Applications of Classical Conditioning: The principles apply to various aspects of human behavior and health, including:

  • Drug and food cravings
  • Immune responses
  • Emotional reactions

Highlight: Pavlov's work provided a foundation for behaviorism, influencing later psychologists like John B. Watson who conducted the famous Little Albert experiment.

Unit 4 Outline
Learning
Module 26 How We Learn and Classical Conditioning
1. How do we learn?
Learn
●
O
■ Experiments in observations (obser

Operant Conditioning

This page introduces operant conditioning, another fundamental learning process distinct from classical conditioning. Operant conditioning focuses on how the consequences of a behavior influence its future occurrence.

Definition: Operant conditioning is a type of learning in which the frequency of a behavior depends on the consequences that follow it.

Key points about operant conditioning:

  • Behaviors followed by reinforcing consequences increase in frequency
  • Behaviors followed by punishing consequences decrease in frequency
  • The learner plays an active role, unlike in classical conditioning

Historical background:

  • B.F. Skinner 190419901904-1990 is considered the founder of operant conditioning
  • Edward L. Thorndike 187419491874-1949 developed the Law of Effect, which laid the groundwork for operant conditioning

Quote: "Behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely." - Law of Effect

Skinner's experiments:

  • Used the "Skinner Box" or operant conditioning chamber
  • Demonstrated how reinforcement can shape behavior

Types of reinforcement:

  • Positive reinforcement: Adding a desirable stimulus to increase behavior
  • Negative reinforcement: Removing an aversive stimulus to increase behavior

Example: A rat in a Skinner box learns to press a lever more frequently when doing so delivers food pellets (positive reinforcement) or stops an unpleasant noise (negative reinforcement).

The page emphasizes that operant conditioning principles are widely applicable to understanding and modifying human and animal behavior.

Unit 4 Outline
Learning
Module 26 How We Learn and Classical Conditioning
1. How do we learn?
Learn
●
O
■ Experiments in observations (obser

Reinforcement Schedules and Applications

This page delves deeper into the nuances of operant conditioning, focusing on reinforcement schedules and their practical applications.

Reinforcement Schedules:

  1. Continuous Reinforcement: Reinforcing the desired behavior every time it occurs
  2. Partial (Intermittent) Reinforcement: Reinforcing the behavior only some of the time

Types of Partial Reinforcement Schedules:

  • Fixed-Ratio (FR): Reinforcement after a set number of responses
  • Variable-Ratio (VR): Reinforcement after an unpredictable number of responses
  • Fixed-Interval (FI): Reinforcement for the first response after a set time period
  • Variable-Interval (VI): Reinforcement for the first response after a varying time period

Highlight: Variable-ratio schedules typically produce the highest, most stable rates of responding and are most resistant to extinction.

Applications of Operant Conditioning:

  1. Behavior Modification: Using reinforcement and punishment to change behavior
  2. Token Economies: Rewarding desired behaviors with tokens that can be exchanged for privileges
  3. Biofeedback: Learning to control physiological processes through operant techniques

Example: A classroom token economy where students earn points for good behavior that can be exchanged for rewards demonstrates applied operant conditioning.

Comparing Classical and Operant Conditioning:

  • Classical conditioning involves involuntary responses, while operant conditioning involves voluntary behaviors
  • Both processes can work together in complex learning situations

Vocabulary: Cognitive processes, such as expectancies and attention, play a role in both classical and operant conditioning, bridging behaviorist and cognitive approaches to learning.

The page concludes by emphasizing the widespread influence of conditioning principles in various fields, including education, therapy, and animal training.

Unit 4 Outline
Learning
Module 26 How We Learn and Classical Conditioning
1. How do we learn?
Learn
●
O
■ Experiments in observations (obser

Observational Learning and Cognitive Factors

This final page explores observational learning and the role of cognitive factors in the learning process, expanding beyond classical and operant conditioning.

Observational Learning:

  • Also known as social learning or modeling
  • Learning by watching others perform behaviors and observing the consequences

Definition: Observational learning is the process of acquiring new behaviors by watching and imitating others, without direct reinforcement.

Key Aspects of Observational Learning:

  1. Attention: Focusing on the model's behavior
  2. Retention: Remembering the observed behavior
  3. Reproduction: Ability to perform the observed behavior
  4. Motivation: Having a reason to imitate the behavior

Example: A child learning to tie shoelaces by watching a parent demonstrates observational learning in action.

Cognitive Factors in Learning:

  • Expectations and beliefs influence how we interpret and respond to stimuli
  • Latent learning occurs without immediate reinforcement but can be demonstrated later
  • Insight learning involves sudden problem-solving through understanding relationships

Highlight: The cognitive perspective emphasizes that learning involves mental processes beyond simple stimulus-response associations.

Applications of Observational Learning:

  • Education: Teachers modeling behaviors and skills for students
  • Therapy: Using role models to demonstrate adaptive behaviors
  • Media Influence: Learning behaviors from characters in movies, TV shows, and social media

Ethical Considerations:

  • The power of observational learning raises questions about media responsibility and the potential for negative modeling

Quote: "Most human behavior is learned observationally through modeling: from observing others, one forms an idea of how new behaviors are performed, and on later occasions this coded information serves as a guide for action." - Albert Bandura

The page concludes by emphasizing the integration of behaviorist and cognitive approaches in modern learning theory, recognizing the complex interplay between environmental influences and internal mental processes in shaping behavior.

Unit 4 Outline
Learning
Module 26 How We Learn and Classical Conditioning
1. How do we learn?
Learn
●
O
■ Experiments in observations (obser

Page 5: Biological and Environmental Influences on Learning

The page examines various factors affecting learning, including biological, psychological, and social-cultural influences.

Vocabulary: The Garcia effect demonstrates how organisms make adaptive associations between stimuli and consequences.

Highlight: Learning is adaptive, with each species developing behaviors that aid survival.

Unit 4 Outline
Learning
Module 26 How We Learn and Classical Conditioning
1. How do we learn?
Learn
●
O
■ Experiments in observations (obser

How We Learn and Classical Conditioning

This page introduces key concepts in learning and classical conditioning psychology. Learning is defined as a relatively permanent change in behavior caused by experience. There are two main types of conditioning:

  1. Classical conditioning - Involuntary learning through association
  2. Operant conditioning - Voluntary learning through consequences

Classical conditioning theory explains how a neutral stimulus can gain the power to elicit a response by being paired with an unconditioned stimulus. This was famously demonstrated in the Pavlov dog experiment.

Definition: Classical conditioning is a type of learning in which a stimulus gains the power to cause a response by predicting another stimulus that already produces that response.

Highlight: It takes about two months for behaviors to become habitual through conditioning.

The page outlines Pavlov's experiments with dogs, explaining key terminology:

  • Unconditioned stimulus USUS - e.g. food
  • Unconditioned response URUR - e.g. salivation
  • Conditioned stimulus CSCS - e.g. bell
  • Conditioned response CRCR - e.g. salivation to bell

Example: Before conditioning, the bell (neutral stimulus) produces no salivation. During conditioning, the bell is paired with food. After conditioning, the bell alone (now a conditioned stimulus) produces salivation (the conditioned response).



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Where can I download the Knowunity app?

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AP Psychology

168

Oct 9, 2025

6 pages

How We Learn: Classical Conditioning, Pavlov's Dog, and More

user profile picture

Selina

@suuhleena

Overall Summary

Classical conditioning and operant conditioning form the cornerstone of learning psychology, demonstrating how both involuntary and voluntary behaviors are shaped through experience. This comprehensive guide explores the fundamental principles of learning, from Pavlov's dog experimentto modern applications... Show more

Unit 4 Outline
Learning
Module 26 How We Learn and Classical Conditioning
1. How do we learn?
Learn
●
O
■ Experiments in observations (obser

Sign up to see the contentIt's free!

Access to all documents

Improve your grades

Join milions of students

By signing up you accept Terms of Service and Privacy Policy

Pavlov's Legacy and Applications

This page explores the lasting impact of Pavlov's work on classical conditioning theory and its applications. Key concepts discussed include:

Extinction and Spontaneous Recovery:

  • Extinction occurs when the conditioned response diminishes after repeated presentation of the CS alone.
  • Spontaneous recovery is the reappearance of an extinguished CR after a period of time.

Example: If a dog stops salivating to a bell that no longer predicts food, but then suddenly salivates again to the bell after a break, this demonstrates extinction followed by spontaneous recovery.

Higher-Order Conditioning: A new neutral stimulus can become a CS by association with a previously conditioned stimulus, without direct pairing with the US.

Vocabulary: Higher-order conditioning alsocalledsecondorderconditioningalso called second-order conditioning extends the reach of classical conditioning beyond direct associations.

Generalization and Discrimination:

  • Generalization involves producing the same response to similar stimuli.
  • Discrimination is learning that one stimulus predicts the US while another does not.

Applications of Classical Conditioning: The principles apply to various aspects of human behavior and health, including:

  • Drug and food cravings
  • Immune responses
  • Emotional reactions

Highlight: Pavlov's work provided a foundation for behaviorism, influencing later psychologists like John B. Watson who conducted the famous Little Albert experiment.

Unit 4 Outline
Learning
Module 26 How We Learn and Classical Conditioning
1. How do we learn?
Learn
●
O
■ Experiments in observations (obser

Sign up to see the contentIt's free!

Access to all documents

Improve your grades

Join milions of students

By signing up you accept Terms of Service and Privacy Policy

Operant Conditioning

This page introduces operant conditioning, another fundamental learning process distinct from classical conditioning. Operant conditioning focuses on how the consequences of a behavior influence its future occurrence.

Definition: Operant conditioning is a type of learning in which the frequency of a behavior depends on the consequences that follow it.

Key points about operant conditioning:

  • Behaviors followed by reinforcing consequences increase in frequency
  • Behaviors followed by punishing consequences decrease in frequency
  • The learner plays an active role, unlike in classical conditioning

Historical background:

  • B.F. Skinner 190419901904-1990 is considered the founder of operant conditioning
  • Edward L. Thorndike 187419491874-1949 developed the Law of Effect, which laid the groundwork for operant conditioning

Quote: "Behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely." - Law of Effect

Skinner's experiments:

  • Used the "Skinner Box" or operant conditioning chamber
  • Demonstrated how reinforcement can shape behavior

Types of reinforcement:

  • Positive reinforcement: Adding a desirable stimulus to increase behavior
  • Negative reinforcement: Removing an aversive stimulus to increase behavior

Example: A rat in a Skinner box learns to press a lever more frequently when doing so delivers food pellets (positive reinforcement) or stops an unpleasant noise (negative reinforcement).

The page emphasizes that operant conditioning principles are widely applicable to understanding and modifying human and animal behavior.

Unit 4 Outline
Learning
Module 26 How We Learn and Classical Conditioning
1. How do we learn?
Learn
●
O
■ Experiments in observations (obser

Sign up to see the contentIt's free!

Access to all documents

Improve your grades

Join milions of students

By signing up you accept Terms of Service and Privacy Policy

Reinforcement Schedules and Applications

This page delves deeper into the nuances of operant conditioning, focusing on reinforcement schedules and their practical applications.

Reinforcement Schedules:

  1. Continuous Reinforcement: Reinforcing the desired behavior every time it occurs
  2. Partial (Intermittent) Reinforcement: Reinforcing the behavior only some of the time

Types of Partial Reinforcement Schedules:

  • Fixed-Ratio (FR): Reinforcement after a set number of responses
  • Variable-Ratio (VR): Reinforcement after an unpredictable number of responses
  • Fixed-Interval (FI): Reinforcement for the first response after a set time period
  • Variable-Interval (VI): Reinforcement for the first response after a varying time period

Highlight: Variable-ratio schedules typically produce the highest, most stable rates of responding and are most resistant to extinction.

Applications of Operant Conditioning:

  1. Behavior Modification: Using reinforcement and punishment to change behavior
  2. Token Economies: Rewarding desired behaviors with tokens that can be exchanged for privileges
  3. Biofeedback: Learning to control physiological processes through operant techniques

Example: A classroom token economy where students earn points for good behavior that can be exchanged for rewards demonstrates applied operant conditioning.

Comparing Classical and Operant Conditioning:

  • Classical conditioning involves involuntary responses, while operant conditioning involves voluntary behaviors
  • Both processes can work together in complex learning situations

Vocabulary: Cognitive processes, such as expectancies and attention, play a role in both classical and operant conditioning, bridging behaviorist and cognitive approaches to learning.

The page concludes by emphasizing the widespread influence of conditioning principles in various fields, including education, therapy, and animal training.

Unit 4 Outline
Learning
Module 26 How We Learn and Classical Conditioning
1. How do we learn?
Learn
●
O
■ Experiments in observations (obser

Sign up to see the contentIt's free!

Access to all documents

Improve your grades

Join milions of students

By signing up you accept Terms of Service and Privacy Policy

Observational Learning and Cognitive Factors

This final page explores observational learning and the role of cognitive factors in the learning process, expanding beyond classical and operant conditioning.

Observational Learning:

  • Also known as social learning or modeling
  • Learning by watching others perform behaviors and observing the consequences

Definition: Observational learning is the process of acquiring new behaviors by watching and imitating others, without direct reinforcement.

Key Aspects of Observational Learning:

  1. Attention: Focusing on the model's behavior
  2. Retention: Remembering the observed behavior
  3. Reproduction: Ability to perform the observed behavior
  4. Motivation: Having a reason to imitate the behavior

Example: A child learning to tie shoelaces by watching a parent demonstrates observational learning in action.

Cognitive Factors in Learning:

  • Expectations and beliefs influence how we interpret and respond to stimuli
  • Latent learning occurs without immediate reinforcement but can be demonstrated later
  • Insight learning involves sudden problem-solving through understanding relationships

Highlight: The cognitive perspective emphasizes that learning involves mental processes beyond simple stimulus-response associations.

Applications of Observational Learning:

  • Education: Teachers modeling behaviors and skills for students
  • Therapy: Using role models to demonstrate adaptive behaviors
  • Media Influence: Learning behaviors from characters in movies, TV shows, and social media

Ethical Considerations:

  • The power of observational learning raises questions about media responsibility and the potential for negative modeling

Quote: "Most human behavior is learned observationally through modeling: from observing others, one forms an idea of how new behaviors are performed, and on later occasions this coded information serves as a guide for action." - Albert Bandura

The page concludes by emphasizing the integration of behaviorist and cognitive approaches in modern learning theory, recognizing the complex interplay between environmental influences and internal mental processes in shaping behavior.

Unit 4 Outline
Learning
Module 26 How We Learn and Classical Conditioning
1. How do we learn?
Learn
●
O
■ Experiments in observations (obser

Sign up to see the contentIt's free!

Access to all documents

Improve your grades

Join milions of students

By signing up you accept Terms of Service and Privacy Policy

Page 5: Biological and Environmental Influences on Learning

The page examines various factors affecting learning, including biological, psychological, and social-cultural influences.

Vocabulary: The Garcia effect demonstrates how organisms make adaptive associations between stimuli and consequences.

Highlight: Learning is adaptive, with each species developing behaviors that aid survival.

Unit 4 Outline
Learning
Module 26 How We Learn and Classical Conditioning
1. How do we learn?
Learn
●
O
■ Experiments in observations (obser

Sign up to see the contentIt's free!

Access to all documents

Improve your grades

Join milions of students

By signing up you accept Terms of Service and Privacy Policy

How We Learn and Classical Conditioning

This page introduces key concepts in learning and classical conditioning psychology. Learning is defined as a relatively permanent change in behavior caused by experience. There are two main types of conditioning:

  1. Classical conditioning - Involuntary learning through association
  2. Operant conditioning - Voluntary learning through consequences

Classical conditioning theory explains how a neutral stimulus can gain the power to elicit a response by being paired with an unconditioned stimulus. This was famously demonstrated in the Pavlov dog experiment.

Definition: Classical conditioning is a type of learning in which a stimulus gains the power to cause a response by predicting another stimulus that already produces that response.

Highlight: It takes about two months for behaviors to become habitual through conditioning.

The page outlines Pavlov's experiments with dogs, explaining key terminology:

  • Unconditioned stimulus USUS - e.g. food
  • Unconditioned response URUR - e.g. salivation
  • Conditioned stimulus CSCS - e.g. bell
  • Conditioned response CRCR - e.g. salivation to bell

Example: Before conditioning, the bell (neutral stimulus) produces no salivation. During conditioning, the bell is paired with food. After conditioning, the bell alone (now a conditioned stimulus) produces salivation (the conditioned response).

We thought you’d never ask...

What is the Knowunity AI companion?

Our AI companion is specifically built for the needs of students. Based on the millions of content pieces we have on the platform we can provide truly meaningful and relevant answers to students. But its not only about answers, the companion is even more about guiding students through their daily learning challenges, with personalised study plans, quizzes or content pieces in the chat and 100% personalisation based on the students skills and developments.

Where can I download the Knowunity app?

You can download the app in the Google Play Store and in the Apple App Store.

Is Knowunity really free of charge?

That's right! Enjoy free access to study content, connect with fellow students, and get instant help – all at your fingertips.

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Explanations of attachment: Learning theory

499

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Can't find what you're looking for? Explore other subjects.

Students love us — and so will you.

4.9/5

App Store

4.8/5

Google Play

The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.

Stefan S

iOS user

This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.

Samantha Klich

Android user

Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.

Anna

iOS user

I think it’s very much worth it and you’ll end up using it a lot once you get the hang of it and even after looking at others notes you can still ask your Artificial intelligence buddy the question and ask to simplify it if you still don’t get it!!! In the end I think it’s worth it 😊👍 ⚠️Also DID I MENTION ITS FREEE YOU DON’T HAVE TO PAY FOR ANYTHING AND STILL GET YOUR GRADES IN PERFECTLY❗️❗️⚠️

Thomas R

iOS user

Knowunity is the BEST app I’ve used in a minute. This is not an ai review or anything this is genuinely coming from a 7th grade student (I know 2011 im young) but dude this app is a 10/10 i have maintained a 3.8 gpa and have plenty of time for gaming. I love it and my mom is just happy I got good grades

Brad T

Android user

Not only did it help me find the answer but it also showed me alternative ways to solve it. I was horrible in math and science but now I have an a in both subjects. Thanks for the help🤍🤍

David K

iOS user

The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!

Sudenaz Ocak

Android user

In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.

Greenlight Bonnie

Android user

I found this app a couple years ago and it has only gotten better since then. I really love it because it can help with written questions and photo questions. Also, it can find study guides that other people have made as well as flashcard sets and practice tests. The free version is also amazing for students who might not be able to afford it. Would 100% recommend

Aubrey

iOS user

Best app if you're in Highschool or Junior high. I have been using this app for 2 school years and it's the best, it's good if you don't have anyone to help you with school work.😋🩷🎀

Marco B

iOS user

THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮

Elisha

iOS user

This app is phenomenal down to the correct info and the various topics you can study! I greatly recommend it for people who struggle with procrastination and those who need homework help. It has been perfectly accurate for world 1 history as far as I’ve seen! Geometry too!

Paul T

iOS user

The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.

Stefan S

iOS user

This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.

Samantha Klich

Android user

Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.

Anna

iOS user

I think it’s very much worth it and you’ll end up using it a lot once you get the hang of it and even after looking at others notes you can still ask your Artificial intelligence buddy the question and ask to simplify it if you still don’t get it!!! In the end I think it’s worth it 😊👍 ⚠️Also DID I MENTION ITS FREEE YOU DON’T HAVE TO PAY FOR ANYTHING AND STILL GET YOUR GRADES IN PERFECTLY❗️❗️⚠️

Thomas R

iOS user

Knowunity is the BEST app I’ve used in a minute. This is not an ai review or anything this is genuinely coming from a 7th grade student (I know 2011 im young) but dude this app is a 10/10 i have maintained a 3.8 gpa and have plenty of time for gaming. I love it and my mom is just happy I got good grades

Brad T

Android user

Not only did it help me find the answer but it also showed me alternative ways to solve it. I was horrible in math and science but now I have an a in both subjects. Thanks for the help🤍🤍

David K

iOS user

The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!

Sudenaz Ocak

Android user

In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.

Greenlight Bonnie

Android user

I found this app a couple years ago and it has only gotten better since then. I really love it because it can help with written questions and photo questions. Also, it can find study guides that other people have made as well as flashcard sets and practice tests. The free version is also amazing for students who might not be able to afford it. Would 100% recommend

Aubrey

iOS user

Best app if you're in Highschool or Junior high. I have been using this app for 2 school years and it's the best, it's good if you don't have anyone to help you with school work.😋🩷🎀

Marco B

iOS user

THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮

Elisha

iOS user

This app is phenomenal down to the correct info and the various topics you can study! I greatly recommend it for people who struggle with procrastination and those who need homework help. It has been perfectly accurate for world 1 history as far as I’ve seen! Geometry too!

Paul T

iOS user