Pavlov's Legacy and Applications

This page explores the lasting impact of Pavlov's work on classical conditioning theory and its applications. Key concepts discussed include:

Extinction and Spontaneous Recovery:

• Extinction occurs when the conditioned response diminishes after repeated presentation of the CS alone.
• Spontaneous recovery is the reappearance of an extinguished CR after a period of time.

Example: If a dog stops salivating to a bell that no longer predicts food, but then suddenly salivates again to the bell after a break, this demonstrates extinction followed by spontaneous recovery.

Higher-Order Conditioning: A new neutral stimulus can become a CS by association with a previously conditioned stimulus, without direct pairing with the US.

Vocabulary: Higher-order conditioning $also called second-order conditioning$ extends the reach of classical conditioning beyond direct associations.

Generalization and Discrimination:

• Generalization involves producing the same response to similar stimuli.
• Discrimination is learning that one stimulus predicts the US while another does not.

Applications of Classical Conditioning: The principles apply to various aspects of human behavior and health, including:

• Drug and food cravings
• Immune responses
• Emotional reactions

Highlight: Pavlov's work provided a foundation for behaviorism, influencing later psychologists like John B. Watson who conducted the famous Little Albert experiment.

Operant Conditioning

This page introduces operant conditioning, another fundamental learning process distinct from classical conditioning. Operant conditioning focuses on how the consequences of a behavior influence its future occurrence.

Definition: Operant conditioning is a type of learning in which the frequency of a behavior depends on the consequences that follow it.

Key points about operant conditioning:

• Behaviors followed by reinforcing consequences increase in frequency
• Behaviors followed by punishing consequences decrease in frequency
• The learner plays an active role, unlike in classical conditioning

Historical background:

• B.F. Skinner $1904-1990$ is considered the founder of operant conditioning
• Edward L. Thorndike $1874-1949$ developed the Law of Effect, which laid the groundwork for operant conditioning

Quote: "Behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely." - Law of Effect

Skinner's experiments:

• Used the "Skinner Box" or operant conditioning chamber
• Demonstrated how reinforcement can shape behavior

Types of reinforcement:

• Positive reinforcement: Adding a desirable stimulus to increase behavior
• Negative reinforcement: Removing an aversive stimulus to increase behavior

Example: A rat in a Skinner box learns to press a lever more frequently when doing so delivers food pellets (positive reinforcement) or stops an unpleasant noise (negative reinforcement).

The page emphasizes that operant conditioning principles are widely applicable to understanding and modifying human and animal behavior.

Reinforcement Schedules and Applications

This page delves deeper into the nuances of operant conditioning, focusing on reinforcement schedules and their practical applications.

Reinforcement Schedules:

1. Continuous Reinforcement: Reinforcing the desired behavior every time it occurs
2. Partial (Intermittent) Reinforcement: Reinforcing the behavior only some of the time

Types of Partial Reinforcement Schedules:

• Fixed-Ratio (FR): Reinforcement after a set number of responses
• Variable-Ratio (VR): Reinforcement after an unpredictable number of responses
• Fixed-Interval (FI): Reinforcement for the first response after a set time period
• Variable-Interval (VI): Reinforcement for the first response after a varying time period

Highlight: Variable-ratio schedules typically produce the highest, most stable rates of responding and are most resistant to extinction.

Applications of Operant Conditioning:

1. Behavior Modification: Using reinforcement and punishment to change behavior
2. Token Economies: Rewarding desired behaviors with tokens that can be exchanged for privileges
3. Biofeedback: Learning to control physiological processes through operant techniques

Example: A classroom token economy where students earn points for good behavior that can be exchanged for rewards demonstrates applied operant conditioning.

Comparing Classical and Operant Conditioning:

• Classical conditioning involves involuntary responses, while operant conditioning involves voluntary behaviors
• Both processes can work together in complex learning situations

Vocabulary: Cognitive processes, such as expectancies and attention, play a role in both classical and operant conditioning, bridging behaviorist and cognitive approaches to learning.

The page concludes by emphasizing the widespread influence of conditioning principles in various fields, including education, therapy, and animal training.

Observational Learning and Cognitive Factors

This final page explores observational learning and the role of cognitive factors in the learning process, expanding beyond classical and operant conditioning.

Observational Learning:

• Also known as social learning or modeling
• Learning by watching others perform behaviors and observing the consequences

Definition: Observational learning is the process of acquiring new behaviors by watching and imitating others, without direct reinforcement.

Key Aspects of Observational Learning:

1. Attention: Focusing on the model's behavior
2. Retention: Remembering the observed behavior
3. Reproduction: Ability to perform the observed behavior
4. Motivation: Having a reason to imitate the behavior

Example: A child learning to tie shoelaces by watching a parent demonstrates observational learning in action.

Cognitive Factors in Learning:

• Expectations and beliefs influence how we interpret and respond to stimuli
• Latent learning occurs without immediate reinforcement but can be demonstrated later
• Insight learning involves sudden problem-solving through understanding relationships

Highlight: The cognitive perspective emphasizes that learning involves mental processes beyond simple stimulus-response associations.

Applications of Observational Learning:

• Education: Teachers modeling behaviors and skills for students
• Therapy: Using role models to demonstrate adaptive behaviors
• Media Influence: Learning behaviors from characters in movies, TV shows, and social media

Ethical Considerations:

• The power of observational learning raises questions about media responsibility and the potential for negative modeling

Quote: "Most human behavior is learned observationally through modeling: from observing others, one forms an idea of how new behaviors are performed, and on later occasions this coded information serves as a guide for action." - Albert Bandura

The page concludes by emphasizing the integration of behaviorist and cognitive approaches in modern learning theory, recognizing the complex interplay between environmental influences and internal mental processes in shaping behavior.

Page 5: Biological and Environmental Influences on Learning

The page examines various factors affecting learning, including biological, psychological, and social-cultural influences.

Vocabulary: The Garcia effect demonstrates how organisms make adaptive associations between stimuli and consequences.

Highlight: Learning is adaptive, with each species developing behaviors that aid survival.

How We Learn and Classical Conditioning

This page introduces key concepts in learning and classical conditioning psychology. Learning is defined as a relatively permanent change in behavior caused by experience. There are two main types of conditioning:

1. Classical conditioning - Involuntary learning through association
2. Operant conditioning - Voluntary learning through consequences

Classical conditioning theory explains how a neutral stimulus can gain the power to elicit a response by being paired with an unconditioned stimulus. This was famously demonstrated in the Pavlov dog experiment.

Definition: Classical conditioning is a type of learning in which a stimulus gains the power to cause a response by predicting another stimulus that already produces that response.

Highlight: It takes about two months for behaviors to become habitual through conditioning.

The page outlines Pavlov's experiments with dogs, explaining key terminology:

• Unconditioned stimulus $US$ - e.g. food
• Unconditioned response $UR$ - e.g. salivation
• Conditioned stimulus $CS$ - e.g. bell
• Conditioned response $CR$ - e.g. salivation to bell

Example: Before conditioning, the bell (neutral stimulus) produces no salivation. During conditioning, the bell is paired with food. After conditioning, the bell alone (now a conditioned stimulus) produces salivation (the conditioned response).