The Mexican-American War and Its Consequences

The Mexican-American War $1846-1848$ was a direct result of American expansionist policies and the annexation of Texas. President Polk's actions, including sending troops into disputed territory, ultimately led to conflict with Mexico.

Vocabulary: Sectionalism refers to the division between Northern and Southern states over issues such as slavery and states' rights.

The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo ended the war in 1848, resulting in significant territorial gains for the United States. This included the present-day states of California, New Mexico, and the confirmation of Texas as part of the U.S.

Highlight: The Mexican Cession added vast new territories to the United States, intensifying debates over the expansion of slavery.

The Wilmot Proviso, though never passed, proposed banning slavery in any territories acquired from Mexico. This proposal heightened sectional tensions and foreshadowed future conflicts over slavery's expansion.

Quote: "The United States will conquer Mexico, but it will be as the man swallows the arsenic, which brings him down in turn. Mexico will poison us." - Ralph Waldo Emerson, reflecting on the consequences of the Mexican-American War.

The Gadsden Purchase of 1853 acquired additional territory from Mexico for the construction of a transcontinental railroad, completing the current southern border of the continental United States.

The Growing Divide: Slavery and Sectionalism

The territorial gains from the Mexican-American War exacerbated tensions over slavery's expansion. The Free Soil Party emerged, opposing slavery's spread into new territories for both moral and economic reasons.

Definition: Popular Sovereignty was the idea that residents of new territories should decide whether to allow slavery, rather than having it determined by Congress.

The Compromise of 1850 attempted to balance the interests of free and slave states. Key provisions included:

1. California's admission as a free state
2. Popular sovereignty for Utah and New Mexico territories
3. A stricter Fugitive Slave Law
4. Banning the slave trade in Washington D.C.

Highlight: The Fugitive Slave Law of 1850 was particularly controversial, requiring Northern states to return escaped slaves and penalizing those who aided them.

The compromise ultimately failed to resolve sectional tensions and instead intensified the conflict over slavery. Northern states passed Personal Liberty Laws to resist the Fugitive Slave Law, while Southern states saw these actions as a violation of their rights.

The Kansas-Nebraska Act and Bleeding Kansas

The Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854, proposed by Stephen Douglas, further inflamed sectional tensions by overturning the Missouri Compromise. It allowed for popular sovereignty in the Kansas and Nebraska territories, effectively repealing the 36°30' line.

Vocabulary: Popular Sovereignty in this context referred to allowing settlers in new territories to decide whether to permit slavery through a voting process.

The act led to a period of violent conflict known as "Bleeding Kansas". Pro-slavery and anti-slavery settlers flooded into Kansas, leading to fraudulent voting and the establishment of rival state legislatures.

Example: The sacking of Lawrence, Kansas, by pro-slavery forces in 1856 exemplified the violence that erupted in the territory.

The Lecompton Constitution, drafted by pro-slavery forces in Kansas, was ultimately rejected by the U.S. House of Representatives. This controversy further divided the Democratic Party and intensified sectional tensions.

Highlight: Kansas was finally admitted as a free state in 1861, just as the Civil War was beginning.

John Brown and Harpers Ferry

John Brown, a radical abolitionist, played a significant role in both Bleeding Kansas and the lead-up to the Civil War. His actions in Kansas, including the killing of pro-slavery settlers, made him a controversial figure.

Quote: "I, John Brown, am now quite certain that the crimes of this guilty land will never be purged away but with blood." - John Brown, before his execution.

Brown's raid on Harpers Ferry in 1859 was an attempt to spark a slave rebellion. Although the raid failed and Brown was executed, it had a profound impact on public opinion:

• In the North, Brown became a martyr for the abolitionist cause.
• In the South, the raid was seen as evidence of Northern aggression and the threat posed by abolitionists.

Highlight: The Harpers Ferry raid intensified Southern fears of slave rebellions and further polarized the nation on the issue of slavery.

The Caning of Charles Sumner

The attack on Senator Charles Sumner by Representative Preston Brooks in 1856 symbolized the growing divide between North and South. Sumner, an abolitionist, had delivered a fiery speech criticizing slavery and insulting Southern senators.

Quote: "The senator from South Carolina has read many books of chivalry, and believes himself a chivalrous knight with sentiments of honor and courage. Of course he has chosen a mistress to whom he has made his vows, and who, though ugly to others, is always lovely to him; though polluted in the sight of the world, is chaste in his sight—I mean the harlot, slavery." - Charles Sumner, in his "Crime Against Kansas" speech.

Brooks, a Southern Democrat, responded by beating Sumner with a cane on the Senate floor. This violent incident:

1. Highlighted the intensity of emotions surrounding the slavery debate
2. Increased support for the Republican Party in the North
3. Was celebrated by many Southerners who saw it as a defense of their honor

Highlight: The caning of Sumner demonstrated how political discourse had broken down, with violence replacing debate on the issue of slavery.

The Dred Scott Decision

The Supreme Court's ruling in Dred Scott v. Sandford $1857$ was a pivotal moment in the lead-up to the Civil War. Dred Scott, an enslaved man, had sued for his freedom based on his residence in free territory.

The Court's decision, delivered by Chief Justice Roger B. Taney, included several controversial rulings:

1. African Americans, free or enslaved, were not citizens and had no standing to sue in federal court.
2. The Missouri Compromise was unconstitutional, as Congress had no power to prohibit slavery in the territories.
3. Slave owners had a constitutional right to take their "property" $slaves$ into any territory.

Quote: "The Constitution of the United States recognizes slaves as property, and pledges the Federal Government to protect it." - Chief Justice Roger B. Taney, in the Dred Scott decision.

The Dred Scott decision had far-reaching consequences:

• It effectively nullified the concept of free states and territories.
• It strengthened the position of pro-slavery advocates.
• It outraged Northern abolitionists and free-soilers.
• It contributed to the split in the Democratic Party and the rise of the Republican Party.

Highlight: The Dred Scott decision is widely regarded as one of the worst Supreme Court decisions in U.S. history, as it intensified sectional tensions and helped pave the way for the Civil War.

This ruling, combined with the other events of the 1850s, set the stage for the election of Abraham Lincoln in 1860 and the subsequent secession of Southern states, leading to the American Civil War.

Economic and Social Changes

Reconstruction brought economic systems like sharecropping that perpetuated inequality. Black Codes and restrictive contracts effectively maintained plantation-based agriculture.

Definition: Sharecropping bound workers to plantations through crop-sharing arrangements.

Example: The crop-lien system trapped poor farmers in cycles of debt.

Expansionism and Manifest Destiny

The concept of Manifest Destiny played a crucial role in shaping American expansion during the mid-19th century. This ideology, coined by John O'Sullivan, promoted the belief that the United States had a divine right and duty to spread across the North American continent.

The Missouri Compromise of 1820 set the stage for future conflicts over slavery expansion. It established the 36°30' parallel as a dividing line between free and slave states, with slavery prohibited north of this line in the Louisiana Purchase territory.

Definition: Manifest Destiny was the belief that American expansion across the continent was both inevitable and divinely ordained.

President James K. Polk, a Democrat, strongly supported Manifest Destiny and sought to acquire Texas, Oregon, and California during his presidency. This expansionist agenda led to significant territorial gains but also increased tensions with Mexico.

Highlight: The California Gold Rush of 1849 accelerated westward migration and economic development in the newly acquired territories.

The Preemption Acts enabled Americans to purchase government land cheaply, encouraging settlement and farming in the western territories. This policy supported the goals of Manifest Destiny by facilitating rapid population growth in newly acquired lands.

Example: The battle cry "Remember the Alamo" emerged from the Texas Revolution against Mexico, becoming a symbol of American determination to expand westward.