The period following the French and Indian War saw a gradual shift in colonial attitudes towards British rule, ultimately leading to the American Revolution.

Growing Tensions and Colonial Response

Despite initial attempts to reconcile with Britain, colonists became increasingly frustrated with British policies. Key events and acts that contributed to this growing tension include:

1. Declaratory Act $1766$: Asserted British Parliament's right to legislate for the colonies
2. Townshend Acts $1767$: Imposed taxes on luxury goods, leading to colonial boycotts
3. Boston Massacre $1770$: A confrontation resulting in the death of five colonists
4. Boston Tea Party $1773$: Colonists protested the Tea Act by dumping tea into Boston Harbor
5. Coercive Acts $1774$: Punitive measures against Massachusetts, dubbed the "Intolerable Acts" by colonists

Highlight: These events gradually united the colonies in opposition to British rule and fostered a sense of shared American identity.

Philosophical Underpinnings of Revolution

The colonists' resistance was grounded in Enlightenment ideas and political theories:

• Social Contract Theory: The idea that people give up some rights to the government in exchange for protection of their most important rights
• Popular Sovereignty: The concept that government power comes from the people
• Natural Rights: The belief in inalienable rights for all people

Definition: Popular sovereignty is the principle that the authority of the government is created and sustained by the consent of its people.

The American Revolution

The conflict escalated to open warfare in 1775:

• The "shot heard 'round the world" at Lexington and Concord marked the beginning of armed conflict
• The Second Continental Congress convened to manage colonial war efforts
• Thomas Paine's "Common Sense" $1776$ galvanized public opinion in favor of independence

Quote: Thomas Paine's "Common Sense" argued, "The cause of America is in a great measure the cause of all mankind."

The Declaration of Independence in 1776 formally announced the colonies' separation from Britain and outlined the philosophical justification for this action.

Following the Declaration of Independence, the newly formed United States faced the challenge of creating a functional government while fighting a war for independence.

Articles of Confederation

The Articles of Confederation, ratified in 1777, served as the first national government of the United States:

• Created a loose confederation of states
• Established a unicameral Congress
• Gave limited powers to the central government

Highlight: The Articles of Confederation lasted for about a decade but ultimately proved inadequate for governing the new nation.

While the Articles had some successes, such as the Northwest Ordinance of 1787, they also revealed significant weaknesses in the national government's structure.

Problems Facing America

Under the Articles of Confederation, the United States faced several challenges:

1. Legislative inefficiency
2. Economic stagnation
3. Continued British presence
4. Tensions between states

These issues culminated in Shays' Rebellion in 1786-87, which highlighted the need for a stronger central government.

The Constitution

Recognizing the need for reform, delegates met in Philadelphia in 1787 to revise the Articles of Confederation. Instead, they drafted an entirely new document: the Constitution.

Key features of the new government included:

• Federalism: Power sharing between state and federal governments
• Separation of powers: Division of government into three branches
• Checks and balances: Each branch able to limit the power of the others

Definition: Federalism is a system of government in which power is divided between a central authority and constituent political units.

The Constitution also addressed the competing interests of large and small states:

• Virginia Plan: Proposed representation based on population
• New Jersey Plan: Advocated equal representation for all states
• Great Compromise: Created a bicameral legislature with both population-based and equal representation

Vocabulary: Enumerated powers are the specific powers granted to the federal government in the Constitution, while implied powers are those necessary to carry out the enumerated powers.

The ratification process sparked intense debate between Federalists and Anti-Federalists, ultimately leading to the addition of the Bill of Rights to secure individual liberties.

The Constitution established a complex system of checks and balances between three governmental branches, representing a significant evolution from the Articles of Confederation.

Definition: Enumerated powers are specific powers explicitly granted to the federal government by the Constitution.

Example: The Great Compromise resolved representation issues by creating a bicameral Congress with population-based House representation and equal Senate representation for all states.

Key constitutional elements included:

• Separation of powers between branches
• System of checks and balances
• Compromise between large and small states

The French and Indian War $1754-1763$ was a pivotal conflict that set the stage for the American Revolution. This war, fought between Britain and France over control of North American territories, had far-reaching consequences for the American colonies.

Highlight: The French and Indian War was a crucial turning point in American history, leading to significant changes in colonial relations with Britain.

The war began when both the French and British sought control over the Ohio River Valley. While the French were interested in the fur trade, the British colonists desired the land for farming. George Washington's attack on French forces marked the beginning of the conflict.

Example: The Ohio River Valley was a strategic location, valued by both the French for its fur trade potential and the British colonists for its fertile farmland.

The war concluded with the Peace of Paris in 1763, resulting in significant territorial changes:

• Britain gained control of Canada and Florida
• France lost all of its North American colonies
• The alliance system between Native Americans and the French collapsed

These outcomes had profound effects on the colonies:

1. Britain incurred substantial debt from the war
2. The Proclamation Line of 1763 was established to prevent westward expansion
3. Colonists began to question their relationship with Britain

Vocabulary: Salutary neglect refers to the British policy of loose control over colonial affairs, which colonists had grown accustomed to before the war.

The aftermath of the war led to increased tensions between Britain and the colonies, primarily due to new taxation policies and stricter enforcement of existing laws.

Quote: "No taxation without representation" became a rallying cry for colonists who felt unfairly taxed by the British Parliament.

Key acts and events that followed the war include:

• Grenville's Plan: Stricter enforcement of existing laws
• Quartering Act of 1765: Colonists required to house British soldiers
• Sugar Act: Taxes on imported goods
• Stamp Act of 1765: Taxes on legal documents and printed materials
• Currency Act: Restrictions on colonial paper currency

These measures sparked organized resistance among colonists, leading to the formation of groups like the Sons and Daughters of Liberty and the Stamp Act Congress in 1765.