Subjects
Biology
Chemistry
AP Chemistry
English
AP English Literature
Biology
Dec 3, 2025
28
4 pages
Proteins and nucleic acids are essential macromolecules that form the foundation of life. Proteins perform countless critical functions... Show more
Ever wonder what your muscles, hair, and enzymes have in common? They're all made of proteins! Scientists Gerardus Johannes Mulder discovered proteins' chemical makeup, while Jons Jacob Berzelius gave them their name.
Proteins are built from smaller units called amino acids. Think of amino acids as LEGO pieces that connect together to form complex structures. Each amino acid has three parts an amino group, a carboxyl group, and an R group (side chain) that makes each amino acid unique. When amino acids join through a process called dehydration synthesis, they form peptide bonds.
Your body uses 20 different amino acids, but can't make 10 of them on its own. These are called essential amino acids and must come from your diet through foods like chicken, fish, and beans. Unlike fats, proteins aren't stored in your body, so you need to consume them regularly.
Quick Fact Proteins can contain thousands of amino acids folded into complex shapes. This specific structure determines exactly what each protein can do in your body!
The story of who you are is written in molecules called nucleic acids. Friedrich Miescher first identified these important compounds, while Phoebus Levene discovered their building blocks called nucleotides. The famous double helix structure of DNA was later uncovered by Watson, Crick, and Franklin.
Nucleotides, the monomers of nucleic acids, contain three key parts a five-carbon sugar, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base. These components combine to form the two main types of nucleic acids DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA (ribonucleic acid).
DNA and RNA differ in several important ways. DNA uses deoxyribose sugar and forms a double-stranded helix structure with thymine as one of its bases. RNA, however, contains ribose sugar, forms a single strand, and uses uracil instead of thymine. Both molecules use adenine, guanine, and cytosine as their other nitrogenous bases.
Remember this The nucleotides in DNA pair up in specific ways - adenine always pairs with thymine, and guanine always pairs with cytosine. This is called complementary base pairing.
DNA's famous double helix looks like a twisted ladder. The "sides" of this ladder consist of alternating sugar and phosphate groups, while the "rungs" are made of paired nitrogenous bases. RNA has a similar backbone structure but remains single-stranded.
These molecular differences reflect their different roles. DNA serves as the stable storage of genetic information, while RNA acts as a more temporary messenger and worker molecule.
In nature, proteins and nucleic acids work together beautifully. For example, a leopard's distinctive spots are made of proteins, but the pattern and presence of these spots are determined by the animal's DNA. Your unique traits work the same way!
Real-world application When you see different fur patterns in animals or varying hair and eye color in humans, you're seeing the visible results of DNA instructions being carried out through protein production!
Proteins are the ultimate multitaskers in your body. They provide structural support in muscles and bones, transport substances throughout your body, fight disease as antibodies, regulate processes as enzymes, send messages as hormones like insulin, and create movement by contracting muscles.
Nucleic acids have equally crucial roles. DNA contains the blueprint for life and forms the basis of heredity, while RNA uses DNA's instructions to assemble amino acids into proteins.
Understanding these molecules has real-world applications in medicine. For example, mutations in the BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes affect proteins that normally suppress tumor growth. When these genes mutate, their protective proteins aren't produced properly, allowing tumors to grow unchecked. Modern genetic testing can identify these mutations, giving women valuable information for making treatment decisions.
Looking forward The more scientists learn about proteins and nucleic acids, the better we can develop treatments for genetic conditions and diseases. Your generation might use this knowledge to develop revolutionary medical treatments!
Our AI companion is specifically built for the needs of students. Based on the millions of content pieces we have on the platform we can provide truly meaningful and relevant answers to students. But its not only about answers, the companion is even more about guiding students through their daily learning challenges, with personalised study plans, quizzes or content pieces in the chat and 100% personalisation based on the students skills and developments.
You can download the app in the Google Play Store and in the Apple App Store.
That's right! Enjoy free access to study content, connect with fellow students, and get instant help – all at your fingertips.
2
Smart Tools NEW
Transform this note into: ✓ 50+ Practice Questions ✓ Interactive Flashcards ✓ Full Mock Exam ✓ Essay Outlines
This involves characteristics of life, properties of water, organic compounds, cell, membrane structures, metabolism, cell cycle and genetics.
BiologyThis study note will give an explanation of how protein Synthesis was used in our body and its steps.
BiologyDNA & Protein Synthesis is to help students to learn and understand what is DNA and how it is made.
Biologycontains info on - lipid bilayer membrane proteins structures responsible for membrane transport
BiologyNotes of viruses and bacteria
Biologyfor quiz
BiologyApp Store
Google Play
The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
I think it’s very much worth it and you’ll end up using it a lot once you get the hang of it and even after looking at others notes you can still ask your Artificial intelligence buddy the question and ask to simplify it if you still don’t get it!!! In the end I think it’s worth it 😊👍 ⚠️Also DID I MENTION ITS FREEE YOU DON’T HAVE TO PAY FOR ANYTHING AND STILL GET YOUR GRADES IN PERFECTLY❗️❗️⚠️
Thomas R
iOS user
Knowunity is the BEST app I’ve used in a minute. This is not an ai review or anything this is genuinely coming from a 7th grade student (I know 2011 im young) but dude this app is a 10/10 i have maintained a 3.8 gpa and have plenty of time for gaming. I love it and my mom is just happy I got good grades
Brad T
Android user
Not only did it help me find the answer but it also showed me alternative ways to solve it. I was horrible in math and science but now I have an a in both subjects. Thanks for the help🤍🤍
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
I found this app a couple years ago and it has only gotten better since then. I really love it because it can help with written questions and photo questions. Also, it can find study guides that other people have made as well as flashcard sets and practice tests. The free version is also amazing for students who might not be able to afford it. Would 100% recommend
Aubrey
iOS user
Best app if you're in Highschool or Junior high. I have been using this app for 2 school years and it's the best, it's good if you don't have anyone to help you with school work.😋🩷🎀
Marco B
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This app is phenomenal down to the correct info and the various topics you can study! I greatly recommend it for people who struggle with procrastination and those who need homework help. It has been perfectly accurate for world 1 history as far as I’ve seen! Geometry too!
Paul T
iOS user
The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
I think it’s very much worth it and you’ll end up using it a lot once you get the hang of it and even after looking at others notes you can still ask your Artificial intelligence buddy the question and ask to simplify it if you still don’t get it!!! In the end I think it’s worth it 😊👍 ⚠️Also DID I MENTION ITS FREEE YOU DON’T HAVE TO PAY FOR ANYTHING AND STILL GET YOUR GRADES IN PERFECTLY❗️❗️⚠️
Thomas R
iOS user
Knowunity is the BEST app I’ve used in a minute. This is not an ai review or anything this is genuinely coming from a 7th grade student (I know 2011 im young) but dude this app is a 10/10 i have maintained a 3.8 gpa and have plenty of time for gaming. I love it and my mom is just happy I got good grades
Brad T
Android user
Not only did it help me find the answer but it also showed me alternative ways to solve it. I was horrible in math and science but now I have an a in both subjects. Thanks for the help🤍🤍
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
I found this app a couple years ago and it has only gotten better since then. I really love it because it can help with written questions and photo questions. Also, it can find study guides that other people have made as well as flashcard sets and practice tests. The free version is also amazing for students who might not be able to afford it. Would 100% recommend
Aubrey
iOS user
Best app if you're in Highschool or Junior high. I have been using this app for 2 school years and it's the best, it's good if you don't have anyone to help you with school work.😋🩷🎀
Marco B
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This app is phenomenal down to the correct info and the various topics you can study! I greatly recommend it for people who struggle with procrastination and those who need homework help. It has been perfectly accurate for world 1 history as far as I’ve seen! Geometry too!
Paul T
iOS user
Proteins and nucleic acids are essential macromolecules that form the foundation of life. Proteins perform countless critical functions in our bodies, while nucleic acids (DNA and RNA) carry the genetic instructions that determine who we are. Understanding these molecules helps... Show more
Access to all documents
Improve your grades
Join milions of students
By signing up you accept Terms of Service and Privacy Policy
Ever wonder what your muscles, hair, and enzymes have in common? They're all made of proteins! Scientists Gerardus Johannes Mulder discovered proteins' chemical makeup, while Jons Jacob Berzelius gave them their name.
Proteins are built from smaller units called amino acids. Think of amino acids as LEGO pieces that connect together to form complex structures. Each amino acid has three parts: an amino group, a carboxyl group, and an R group (side chain) that makes each amino acid unique. When amino acids join through a process called dehydration synthesis, they form peptide bonds.
Your body uses 20 different amino acids, but can't make 10 of them on its own. These are called essential amino acids and must come from your diet through foods like chicken, fish, and beans. Unlike fats, proteins aren't stored in your body, so you need to consume them regularly.
Quick Fact: Proteins can contain thousands of amino acids folded into complex shapes. This specific structure determines exactly what each protein can do in your body!
Access to all documents
Improve your grades
Join milions of students
By signing up you accept Terms of Service and Privacy Policy
The story of who you are is written in molecules called nucleic acids. Friedrich Miescher first identified these important compounds, while Phoebus Levene discovered their building blocks called nucleotides. The famous double helix structure of DNA was later uncovered by Watson, Crick, and Franklin.
Nucleotides, the monomers of nucleic acids, contain three key parts: a five-carbon sugar, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base. These components combine to form the two main types of nucleic acids: DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA (ribonucleic acid).
DNA and RNA differ in several important ways. DNA uses deoxyribose sugar and forms a double-stranded helix structure with thymine as one of its bases. RNA, however, contains ribose sugar, forms a single strand, and uses uracil instead of thymine. Both molecules use adenine, guanine, and cytosine as their other nitrogenous bases.
Remember this: The nucleotides in DNA pair up in specific ways - adenine always pairs with thymine, and guanine always pairs with cytosine. This is called complementary base pairing.
Access to all documents
Improve your grades
Join milions of students
By signing up you accept Terms of Service and Privacy Policy
DNA's famous double helix looks like a twisted ladder. The "sides" of this ladder consist of alternating sugar and phosphate groups, while the "rungs" are made of paired nitrogenous bases. RNA has a similar backbone structure but remains single-stranded.
These molecular differences reflect their different roles. DNA serves as the stable storage of genetic information, while RNA acts as a more temporary messenger and worker molecule.
In nature, proteins and nucleic acids work together beautifully. For example, a leopard's distinctive spots are made of proteins, but the pattern and presence of these spots are determined by the animal's DNA. Your unique traits work the same way!
Real-world application: When you see different fur patterns in animals or varying hair and eye color in humans, you're seeing the visible results of DNA instructions being carried out through protein production!
Access to all documents
Improve your grades
Join milions of students
By signing up you accept Terms of Service and Privacy Policy
Proteins are the ultimate multitaskers in your body. They provide structural support in muscles and bones, transport substances throughout your body, fight disease as antibodies, regulate processes as enzymes, send messages as hormones like insulin, and create movement by contracting muscles.
Nucleic acids have equally crucial roles. DNA contains the blueprint for life and forms the basis of heredity, while RNA uses DNA's instructions to assemble amino acids into proteins.
Understanding these molecules has real-world applications in medicine. For example, mutations in the BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes affect proteins that normally suppress tumor growth. When these genes mutate, their protective proteins aren't produced properly, allowing tumors to grow unchecked. Modern genetic testing can identify these mutations, giving women valuable information for making treatment decisions.
Looking forward: The more scientists learn about proteins and nucleic acids, the better we can develop treatments for genetic conditions and diseases. Your generation might use this knowledge to develop revolutionary medical treatments!
Our AI companion is specifically built for the needs of students. Based on the millions of content pieces we have on the platform we can provide truly meaningful and relevant answers to students. But its not only about answers, the companion is even more about guiding students through their daily learning challenges, with personalised study plans, quizzes or content pieces in the chat and 100% personalisation based on the students skills and developments.
You can download the app in the Google Play Store and in the Apple App Store.
That's right! Enjoy free access to study content, connect with fellow students, and get instant help – all at your fingertips.
2
Smart Tools NEW
Transform this note into: ✓ 50+ Practice Questions ✓ Interactive Flashcards ✓ Full Mock Exam ✓ Essay Outlines
This involves characteristics of life, properties of water, organic compounds, cell, membrane structures, metabolism, cell cycle and genetics.
BiologyThis study note will give an explanation of how protein Synthesis was used in our body and its steps.
BiologyDNA & Protein Synthesis is to help students to learn and understand what is DNA and how it is made.
Biologycontains info on - lipid bilayer membrane proteins structures responsible for membrane transport
BiologyNotes of viruses and bacteria
Biologyfor quiz
BiologyApp Store
Google Play
The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
I think it’s very much worth it and you’ll end up using it a lot once you get the hang of it and even after looking at others notes you can still ask your Artificial intelligence buddy the question and ask to simplify it if you still don’t get it!!! In the end I think it’s worth it 😊👍 ⚠️Also DID I MENTION ITS FREEE YOU DON’T HAVE TO PAY FOR ANYTHING AND STILL GET YOUR GRADES IN PERFECTLY❗️❗️⚠️
Thomas R
iOS user
Knowunity is the BEST app I’ve used in a minute. This is not an ai review or anything this is genuinely coming from a 7th grade student (I know 2011 im young) but dude this app is a 10/10 i have maintained a 3.8 gpa and have plenty of time for gaming. I love it and my mom is just happy I got good grades
Brad T
Android user
Not only did it help me find the answer but it also showed me alternative ways to solve it. I was horrible in math and science but now I have an a in both subjects. Thanks for the help🤍🤍
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
I found this app a couple years ago and it has only gotten better since then. I really love it because it can help with written questions and photo questions. Also, it can find study guides that other people have made as well as flashcard sets and practice tests. The free version is also amazing for students who might not be able to afford it. Would 100% recommend
Aubrey
iOS user
Best app if you're in Highschool or Junior high. I have been using this app for 2 school years and it's the best, it's good if you don't have anyone to help you with school work.😋🩷🎀
Marco B
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This app is phenomenal down to the correct info and the various topics you can study! I greatly recommend it for people who struggle with procrastination and those who need homework help. It has been perfectly accurate for world 1 history as far as I’ve seen! Geometry too!
Paul T
iOS user
The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
I think it’s very much worth it and you’ll end up using it a lot once you get the hang of it and even after looking at others notes you can still ask your Artificial intelligence buddy the question and ask to simplify it if you still don’t get it!!! In the end I think it’s worth it 😊👍 ⚠️Also DID I MENTION ITS FREEE YOU DON’T HAVE TO PAY FOR ANYTHING AND STILL GET YOUR GRADES IN PERFECTLY❗️❗️⚠️
Thomas R
iOS user
Knowunity is the BEST app I’ve used in a minute. This is not an ai review or anything this is genuinely coming from a 7th grade student (I know 2011 im young) but dude this app is a 10/10 i have maintained a 3.8 gpa and have plenty of time for gaming. I love it and my mom is just happy I got good grades
Brad T
Android user
Not only did it help me find the answer but it also showed me alternative ways to solve it. I was horrible in math and science but now I have an a in both subjects. Thanks for the help🤍🤍
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
I found this app a couple years ago and it has only gotten better since then. I really love it because it can help with written questions and photo questions. Also, it can find study guides that other people have made as well as flashcard sets and practice tests. The free version is also amazing for students who might not be able to afford it. Would 100% recommend
Aubrey
iOS user
Best app if you're in Highschool or Junior high. I have been using this app for 2 school years and it's the best, it's good if you don't have anyone to help you with school work.😋🩷🎀
Marco B
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This app is phenomenal down to the correct info and the various topics you can study! I greatly recommend it for people who struggle with procrastination and those who need homework help. It has been perfectly accurate for world 1 history as far as I’ve seen! Geometry too!
Paul T
iOS user
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