China's Self-Strengthening Movement and the Boxer Rebellion

In response to mounting internal and external challenges in the 19th century, China initiated the "Self-Strengthening" Movement in the 1860s and 1870s. This modernization effort aimed to strengthen China while retaining its traditions, similar to Japan's approach. Key reforms included:

• Overhauling the examination system
• Establishing industrial factories for textiles and steel
• Expanding coal mines
• Initiating telegraph systems
• Creating modern arsenals, shipyards, and foreign language schools

However, conservative leaders feared these urban, industrial, and commercial developments would erode the power of the landlord class.

Vocabulary: Self-Strengthening Movement - A period of institutional reforms in the late Qing dynasty aimed at modernizing China while preserving traditional structures.

The failure of the self-strengthening movement became evident by the end of the 19th century, culminating in the Boxer Rebellion (1898-1901). This anti-foreigner, anti-imperialist uprising in northern China, led by militia groups called the "Society of Righteous and Harmonious Fists," targeted European and Chinese Christians and besieged foreign embassies in Beijing.

The rebellion's suppression by Western powers and Japan, followed by the imposition of huge reparations on China, demonstrated China's continued dependence on foreign powers. This event also led to the United States gaining trade access to China through the Open Door Policy.

Definition: Boxer Rebellion - An anti-foreign, anti-colonial, and anti-Christian uprising in China between 1899 and 1901.

Highlight: The Boxer Rebellion and its aftermath highlighted China's vulnerability to foreign intervention and its struggle to modernize effectively.

Political Power in the Ming Dynasty

The Ming dynasty consolidated political power through several key measures after overthrowing Mongol rule. They reestablished the civil service examination system, which had been neglected under the Mongols, to recruit capable officials. The Ming created a highly centralized government structure that concentrated power in the hands of the emperor.

Economically, the Ming restored millions of acres of farmland to cultivation. They invested heavily in infrastructure by building canals, reservoirs, and irrigation works. In a massive reforestation effort, they planted around a billion trees across China. Under Emperor Yongle in particular, the economy rebounded strongly and both international and domestic trade flourished.

Highlight: By the 15th century, Ming China had recovered to become the best-governed and most prosperous of the world's major civilizations.

The Ming were renowned for their technological and artistic achievements, particularly in porcelain production. Ming porcelain was highly sought after worldwide. They also produced exquisite furniture, lacquered screens, and silk goods.

Vocabulary: Civil service examination system - The imperial examination system used to select government officials based on merit rather than family connections.