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maritime empires, and the effects of new cross-cultural encounters. 1 Topics may include: X Unit 5: Revolutions The influence of scientific learning and technological innovation The Columbian Exchange On the exam: 12% to 15% of the exam score Development and expansion of maritime empires Internal and external challenges to state power Changes to social hierarchies linked to the spread of empires You'll start your study of the period c. 1750-c. 1900 by exploring the new political ideas and developments in technology that led to large-scale changes in governments, society, and economies. On The Exam: Topics may include: The Enlightenment Revolutions against existing governments and the birth of new nation-states The Industrial Revolution Trade policies The development of industrial economies 12%-15% of the exam score X Unit 6: Consequences of Industrialization You'll continue to investigate the period c. 1750-c. 1900 and learn how the different states acquired and expanded control over colonies and territories. Topics may include: State expansion in the 18th and 19th centuries Resistance to imperialism The growth of the global economy Economic imperialism Causes and effects of new migration patterns On the exam: 12%-15% of the exam score X Unit 7: Global Conflict You'll begin your study of the period c. 1900-present by learning about the global conflicts that dominated this era. Topics may include: Changes in the global political order after 1900 World War I: its causes and how it was fought The interwar period World War II: its causes and how it was fought Mass atrocities after 1900 On the exam: 8% to 10% of the exam score 2 X Unit 8: Cold War and Decolonization As you continue exploring the period c. 1900-present, you'll learn about colonies' pursuits of independence and the global power struggle between capitalism and communism. Topics may include: The causes and effects of the Cold War The spread of communism How colonies in Asia and Africa achieved independence The creation of new states after decolonization The end of the Cold War On the exam: 8% to 10% of the exam score X Unit 9: Globalization You'll continue your study of the period c. 1900-present by investigating the causes and effects of the unprecedented connectivity of the modern world. Topics may include: Advances in technology and their effects Disease Environment Economic change Movements for reform How globalization changed culture New international institutions On the exam: 8% to 10% of the exam score EXAM COMPONENTS: Exam duration: 3 hours, 15 minutes. X Section IA: Multiple Choice The questions in the multiple-choice section come in sets of usually 3-4 questions based on the same stimulus. The questions will include one or more sources to respond to such as primary and secondary texts, images (for example, artwork, photos, posters, cartoons), charts, and maps. You'll be asked to: Analyze the provided sources Analyze the historical developments and processes described in the sources Part of exam percentage: 55 questions; 55 mins. 40% of score X Section IB: Short Answer In the short-answer section, you'll write answers to questions in your test booklet. Some questions include texts, images, graphs, or maps. Question 1 is required, includes 1 or 2 secondary sources, and focuses on historical developments or processes between the years 1200 and 2001. 3 Question 2 is required, includes 1 primary source, and focuses on historical developments or processes between the years 1200 and 2001. You can choose between Question 3 (which focuses on the period from 1200 to 1750) and Question 4 (which focuses on the period from 1750 to 2001) for the last question. No sources are included for either Question 3 or Question 4. You'll be asked to: Analyze the provided sources Analyze historical developments and processes described in the sources Put those historical developments and processes in context Make connections between those historical developments and processes Part of exam percentage: 3 questions; 40 mins. 20% of score X Section II: Free Response In the free-response section, you'll write answers to questions in your test booklet. There are two questions: one document-based question and one long essay. Document-Based Question: 2 questions; 1hr 40 mins. 40% of score Recommended Time: 60 Minutes (includes 15-minute reading period) | 25% of Score The 60-minute recommended time for this section includes a 15-minute reading period. You'll be presented with seven documents that give various perspectives on a historical development or process. You'll be asked to develop and support an argument based on these documents and other evidence from your own knowledge. The topic of the document-based question will include historical developments or processes between the years 1450 and 2001. Long Essay Question: 40 Minutes; 15% of score You'll have a choice of three questions; you'll pick one to answer. Each tests the same skills but the questions focus on different historical time periods (either the period from c. 1200-1750, from c. 1450-1900, or from c. 1750-2001). You'll be asked to develop and support an argument based on evidence. 4 1> < INFORMATION FROM SLIDESHOWS AND TEXTBOOK FOR UNIT 1 Global Tapestry: c. 1200 - 1450 China: China has a long and rich history, with numerous dynasties that have left their mark on the country. Here are brief descriptions of ten of the most important Chinese dynasties: Dynasties: Shang Zhou Qin Han Sui Tang Song Shang Dynasty (1600-1046 BCE): The Shang Dynasty is known for its advances in bronze metallurgy, writing, and agriculture, as well as its use of oracle bones for divination. Zhou Dynasty (1046-256 BCE): The Zhou Dynasty is noted for its feudal system of government, which included the use of vassals to maintain control over the empire. Qin Dynasty (221-206 BCE): The Qin Dynasty is famous for unifying China and establishing the first centralized, bureaucratic government. Han Dynasty (206 BCE-220 CE): The Han Dynasty is considered a golden age of Chinese history, with significant advances in technology, literature, and philosophy. Years: 581-618 Not considered a part of China's golden age; however, The Sui dynasty reunified China for the first time in nearly 400 years after the fall of the Han dynasty under the leader Yang Jian Buddhism spread across China, inspiring art and sculptures still visible today. The major legacy of this dynasty was the Grand Canal connecting China's north and south Developed 3 departments and 6 ministers system They were the Ministries of Personnel, Rites, War, Justice, Works, and Revenue Years: 618-907 One of two considered to be China's "golden age" Golden age: (metaphor) a period considered the peak in the history of a country or people, a time period when the greatest achievements were made Tang Dynasty (618-907 CE): The Tang Dynasty is known for its cosmopolitan culture, with significant contributions to art, literature, and music. Years: 960-1279 One of two considered to be China's "golden age" 5 Yuan Ming Qing Golden age: (metaphor) a period considered the peak in the history of a country or people, a time period when the greatest achievements were made Song Dynasty (960-1279 CE): The Song Dynasty is noted for its advances in science and technology, including the development of movable type printing. Yuan Dynasty (1279-1368 CE): The Yuan Dynasty was established by the Mongol Empire and is known for its contributions to literature and art. Ming Dynasty (1368-1644 CE): The Ming Dynasty is known for its achievements in art, literature, and architecture, including the construction of the Great Wall of China. Qing Dynasty (1644-1912 CE): The Qing Dynasty is the last imperial dynasty of China, known for its expansionist policies and extensive trade with Europe. All of these dynasties played important roles in shaping Chinese culture, politics, and society, and their legacies continue to be felt in China and around the world today. The Shang Dynasty is known for its advances in bronze metallurgy, writing, and agriculture. Additionally, it is known for its use of oracle bones for divination, which is a practice that still continues in some parts of China today. The Zhou Dynasty is noted for its feudal system of government, which included the use of vassals to maintain control over the empire. It is also known for its advancements in agriculture, art, and literature. The Qin Dynasty is famous for unifying China and establishing the first centralized, bureaucratic government. During this time, the Great Wall of China was also constructed. The Han Dynasty is considered a golden age of Chinese history, with significant advances in technology, literature, and philosophy. It was also during this time that China established trade relationships with other countries, including the Roman Empire. The Tang Dynasty is known for its cosmopolitan culture, with significant contributions to art, literature, and music. It was a time of great prosperity and cultural exchange, with China's influence extending to other parts of Asia. The Song Dynasty is noted for its advances in science and technology, including the development of movable type printing. It was also during this time that China experienced a significant economic boom. The Yuan Dynasty was established by the Mongol Empire and is known for its contributions to literature and art. It was a time of cultural exchange between China and other parts of the world, with Marco Polo being one of the most famous travelers to China during this time. 6 The Ming Dynasty is known for its achievements in art, literature, and architecture, including the construction of the Great Wall of China. It was also a time of great exploration, with China sending out expeditions to other parts of the world. The Qing Dynasty is the last imperial dynasty of China, known for its expansionist policies and extensive trade with Europe. It was also a time of significant cultural and social change in China, with the influence of Western ideas and technology becoming more prominent. All of these dynasties played important roles in shaping Chinese culture, politics, and society, and their legacies continue to be felt in China and around the world today. 7 < AP Exam Study Guide: World History Modern > Major time periods and their characteristics (e.g., Renaissance, Enlightenment, Industrial Revolution, World Wars, Cold War, Globalization). Periodization: ● Global Interactions: Exploration and colonization: ● European expansion, Columbian Exchange, impact on indigenous peoples. Atlantic slave trade: causes, effects, and legacies. Global trade networks: Silk Road, Indian Ocean trade, Trans-Saharan trade, Triangular trade, globalization of trade in the modern era. Cultural diffusion: spread of religions, technology, and ideas. Industrialization and Economic Systems: ● Industrial Revolution: causes, effects, and impact on societies. Capitalism, socialism, communism, and mixed economies: features, advantages, and disadvantages. Nation-States and Empires: Formation, consolidation, and decline of empires (e.g., Ottoman, Mughal, Russian, Qing, British, French). ● Nationalism: emergence, challenges to empires, unification movements. Revolutions and Independence Movements: Revolution: American Revolution: causes, impact, influence on subsequent revolutions. French Revolution: causes, phases, impact, and rise of Napoleon. ● Latin American independence movements: leaders, causes, and effects. ● 19th-century rebellions: Indian Rebellion of 1857, Taiping Rebellion, Boxer Rebellion. Global Conflicts: World War I: causes, events, consequences, Treaty of Versailles. ● Russian Revolution: causes, phases, rise of communism. ● World War II: causes, events, consequences, Holocaust, atomic bombings. Cold War: origins, events, proxy wars, collapse of the Soviet Union. Decolonization and Nationalism: ● African and Asian independence movements: leaders, strategies, challenges, and outcomes. ● Apartheid in South Africa: origins, impact, and eventual end. Israeli-Palestinian conflict: origins, key events, peace efforts. Globalization and Interconnectedness: Technological advancements: Industrial Revolution, information technology, globalization of communication. Global economy: multinational corporations, trade agreements (e.g., NAFTA, EU), economic interdependence. ● Environmental challenges: deforestation, climate change, resource depletion. 8 A good chart for an overview on the many governments in the classical period; c. 600 B.C.E. to c. 600 C.E. Government in the Classical Period, c. 600 B.C.E. to c. 600 C.E. Civilization Form Characteristics Important Individuals and Government Bodies • Ashoka Mauryan and Centralized empire Gupta (c. 320 B.C.E.-C. 550 C.E.) Qin/Han (221 B.C.E.-220 C.E.) Persian (c. 550 B.C.E.-c. 330 B.C.E.) Greek (c. 550 B.C.E.-336 B.C.E.) Roman (c. 509 B.C.E.-C. 476 C.E.) Byzantine (c. 330 C.E.-1453 C.E.) Mayan (c. 250 C.E.- c. 900 C.E.) Centralized empire Centralized empire Decentralized city-states Centralized republic and then empire Centralized empire Decentralized city-states < CHARTS & DIAGRAMS > • Qin Shi Huangdi • Han Wudi • Darius . . Xerxes • Pericles . • Assembly of Citizens • Julius Caesar • Ceasar Augustus . Senate • Justinian •None are well- known Developed a sophisticated bureaucracy Used a civil service exam to create a merit-based bureaucracy Organized empire into regional provinces Created a direct democracy in Athens for free adult males Allowed citizens to elect senators Established laws known as the Justinian Code Considered emperors as descended from a deity Role of Religion The Gupta tolerated religious diversity, but Hindus dominated The Han supported Confucianism State was religiously tolerant Religion was separate from government but influential Religion was separate from government but influential The government appointed religious leaders A theocracy with powerful priests 9 Theme → PERIOD 1 POST CLASSICAL 1200 - 1450 PERIOD 2 EARLY MODERN 1450-1750 PERIOD 3 MODERN 1750 - 1900 PERIOD 4. CONTEMPORARY 1900-present SOCIAL Feudalism oath of loyalty between vassals and lords MAJOR EMPIRES: Song, Yuan, Mong. Byzantines, Swahili, Mali, Songhai, Delhi Sultanate, Inca, Aztec) Patriarchy= men dominated Slavery Caste System-social system in Hindu society Filial Piety respect for elders and ancestors Indentured servants= service in exchange for ride to America Racial hierarchy (mestizo. mulatto, Creole) Atlantic Slave Trade European Nobility Feminism (suffrage) Abolitionism Labor unions worker's rights The rise of the middle class Universal education Feminism (equal rights) Civil Rights(end segregation) LGBTQ movement Protests 1968, 1989 Region Period Crops Trade Religion Government . Technology and Thought POLITICAL Reasons for Decline Statebuilding process of societies building wealth and stabilizing Feudalism King->Fief->Lord-> Serf MAJOR EMPIRES: Maritime (Spanish, British, French, Dutch, Portuguese), Land (Russian, Ming. Qing, Mughal, Aztec, Tokugawa) Safavid, Ottoman, Inca, . Imperialism+Colonialism Divine right "God given" right to rule MAJOR EMPIRES: British, French, German, Russian, Qing, Mughal, American Imperialism (expanding by force) Revolutions Enlightenment(Locke, Montesquieu, Voltaire) MAJOR PLAYERS: USSR, US, China, Britain, India, South Africa, Israel WWI, WWII Cold War Indian Independence(Ghandi etc.) Mexico/Central America 400-1517 . Corn . Beans . Squash • Moderate • Polytheistic • Some human sacrifice Comparing Three American Civilizations Maya • Organized city-states, each with a king • Wars for tribute . • Writing Step pyramids • Accurate calendar . • Drought . Deforestation INTERACTION Diaspora = Muslims, Chinese, Jews Champa Rice Black Death= mass death caused by bubonic plague Camel transportation= camels helped transport goods across Sahara desert Columbian Exchange Transfer of diseases New crops more food a more people Zheng He expeditions Long-distance migrations=unskilled laborers from Europe Industrial pollution Overcrowded cities Scramble for Africa Western powers established colonies Spanish flu 1918 Aids/HIV Climate Change = pollution, CO2 admissions Apartheid= segregation in South Africa Aztec Central Mexico 1200-1521 . Corn • Beans • Squash . Tomatoes • Extensive Dates to Know:// 1200s Mongols // 1324 Mansa Musa // 1347 Bubonic Plague // 1492 Columbus // 1502 first slaves // 1750 Industrial Rev // 1885 Berlin Con // 1914-1918 WWI // 1917 Rus Rev // 1939-1945 WWII //1945-1991 Cold War • Polytheistic • Some human sacrifice • Powerful king • Wars for captives • System of tribute Step pyramids Chinampas • Accurate calendar CULTURAL • European diseases . Subjects rebelled • Spanish attacks Tech = compass, astrolabe, paper money, credit Confucian traditions ancestral worship, yin and yang, filial piety Hinduism, Buddhism, Islam Tech maps, wind patterns, caravels Renaissance rebirth of learning + secular views Missionaries Catholic Reformation= reformed abuses in the Church New tech = railroads, steamships, telegraphs, canals Application of Enlightenment ideas Revolutions(American, French, Haitian) New tech = planes, nukes, mass media, antibiotics Globalization countries become globally connected through war/travel/media Inca Andes in South America 1200-1533 . Corn . Cotton • Potatoes . • Powerful king • Wars for conquest • Mit'a system • Limited • Polytheistic • Some human sacrifice • Waru waru . Roads Masonry • European diseases . Civil war . Spanish attacks ECONOMIC Trading Centers: Novgorod, Baghdad, Melaka, Venice Roads, Trans- Saharan, Indian Ocean, Silk, cotton, spices, slaves, gems Joint stock company(East Indian Company etc.)= business sells stocks Atlantic Triangle Trade Silver flow from America to Asia Mercantilism-establishing wealth via exports/trade Inflation in China = silver inflation Industrialization(factories, steam engine, cotton gin) Capitalism-business controlled by owners not state Communism (Karl Marx)=all property publicly owned Laissez Faire hands off government Great Depression Communist 5-year plans Capitalist social welfare New Deal=relief for citizens Reform -decolonization United Nations-structure for peace 10 1200 KEY TERMS BY THEME CULTURE: North America Mississippian matrilineal society TECHNOLOGY: Mound-Building Cahokia CULTURE: Mayan city-states 1235 Sundiata establishes the Mali empire in West Africa 1258 Mongols conquer the Abbasid Caliphate and begin improving the Silk Road 1300 1325 Muslim scholar Ibn Battuta starts his 1324 West African ruler travels to Asia, Europe, and Africa GOVERNMENT: Aztec Mansa Musa begins a lavish pilgrimage to Mecca KEY TERMS BY THEME TECHNOLOGY: Sea Trade magnetic compass rudder junk Mexica theocracy GOVERNMENT: New Empires Mongol Empire RELIGION: Aztec human sacrifice Timeline of some events from 1200 to 1450 1347 Black death ravages Europe CULTURE: Trade Cities Kashgar Samarkand GOVERNMENT: Inca Pachacuti Incan Empire mit'a system 1400 TECHNOLOGY: Inca Carpa Nan RELIGION: Inca Temple of the Sun animism 1405 Chinese admiral Zheng He begins seven great voyages through the Indian Ocean 1417 The central Asian trading city of Samarkand begins building an impressive muslim school ECONOMICS: Innovations caravanserai money economy flying cash 1440 Margery Kempe, author of one of the first autobiographies in English, dies paper money banking houses bill of exchange Hanseatic League 1450 11 Innovations in Commerce, 500 B.C.E. to 1603 C.E. Description Financial Instrument Coin Caravanserai Paper Money Hanseatic League Banking House Bill of Exchange Minted precious metals (silver, bronze, gold) with own inherent value Inns along trade routes where travelers could trade, rest, and replenish Currency in paper form First common market and confederation of merchant guilds Precursor to modern banking A written order without interest that binds one party to pay a fixed sum to another party at a predetermined date in the future Origin Date c. 500 B.C.E. c. 500 B.C.E. c. 800 C.E. 1296 C.E. c. 200 B.C.E. c. 700 C.E. Early Location Lydia, Turkey Persian Empire China Germany China China 12 < UNIT SUMMARIES/OVERVIEWS: ONE THROUGH NINE > Unit 1: The Global Tapestry Unit One of AP World History Modern covers the period of the Global Tapestry, from 1200-1450 CE. This era was marked by significant changes and developments in various parts of the world. During this period, the Mongol Empire emerged as a dominant force in Central Asia, conquering vast territories and establishing trade routes that connected Europe and Asia. Meanwhile, in Europe, the High Middle Ages saw the rise of powerful monarchies and the expansion of Christianity. In Africa, the Kingdom of Mali became a major center of trade and learning, while in the Americas, the Inca and Aztec empires were at their height. The spread of Islam continued during this period, with the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate in India and the emergence of the Ottoman Empire in the Middle East. The period of the Global Tapestry also witnessed significant cultural and artistic developments, such as the flourishing of Islamic art and architecture, the emergence of Gothic architecture in Europe, and the creation of beautiful textiles and pottery in China. Overall, Unit One of AP World History Modern provides a fascinating glimpse into the complex and interconnected world of the Global Tapestry, highlighting the diverse political, economic, social, and cultural developments that shaped this era. Unit 2: Networks of Exchange Unit two of AP World History Modern covers the period of 1200-1450 and focuses on the networks of exchange that emerged during this time. The period was defined by the expansion of trade and commerce, the growth of cities, and the exchange of cultural and technological ideas. One of the key themes of this period was the growth of interregional trade networks, including the Silk Roads, the Indian Ocean trade network, and the Trans-Saharan trade routes. These trade networks facilitated the exchange of goods, ideas, and technologies between different regions of the world. Another important theme was the spread of religion and culture through these trade networks, including the spread of Islam, Buddhism, and Christianity. This led to the development of new cultural and religious practices, as well as the blending of different cultural traditions. The period also saw significant technological advancements, including the development of the magnetic compass, gunpowder, and the printing press. These innovations had a profound impact on global history, shaping the course of political, economic, and cultural developments in the centuries that followed. Overall, unit two of AP World History Modern provides a rich and complex understanding of the networks of exchange that emerged during the period of 1200-1450, highlighting the ways in which these exchanges shaped the course of global history. Unit 3: Land-Based Empires Unit three of AP World History covers the period from 1450 to 1750, during which several major land-based empires emerged and expanded their territories. The empires covered in this unit include the Ottoman Empire, the Safavid Empire, the Mughal Empire, the Chinese Ming and Qing dynasties, and the Russian Empire. One of the key themes of this unit is the competition and conflict among these empires, as they vied for power and control over resources and territory. The unit explores the military tactics and technologies that these empires used to expand and maintain their domains, as well as the cultural and religious influences that shaped their societies. Another important theme is the impact of global trade and commerce on these empires. The unit covers the growth of long-distance trade networks and the rise of European mercantilism, which challenged the dominance of established Asian 13 empires and fueled competition for resources and markets. Finally, the unit examines the social and economic structures of these empires, including the role of gender, class, and ethnicity in shaping their societies. It also explores the ways in which these structures changed over time, as empires faced new challenges and pressures from within and without. Overall, Unit three of AP World History provides a rich and complex portrait of the land-based empires that dominated the world during this period, highlighting both their strengths and weaknesses, their achievements and their limitations. Unit 4: Transoceanic Interconnections Unit four of AP World History covers the period from 1450 to 1750, during which European exploration and colonization led to the creation of a global network of transoceanic interconnections. This unit explores the ways in which these interconnections transformed the world, both socially and economically. One of the key themes of this unit is the impact of European expansion on existing world systems. The unit examines the ways in which European imperialism and colonization disrupted and reshaped existing social, economic, and political structures in the Ame as, Africa, and Asia. It also explores the ways in which European expansion fueled the growth of the Atlantic slave trade, which had profound and lasting consequences for African societies. Another important theme is the growth of global trade networks and the rise of new economic systems. The unit covers the growth of long-distance trade networks and the development of new financial instruments, such as joint-stock companies and bills of exchange, which facilitated the exchange of goods and capital across continents. It also examines the ways in which these networks created new forms of economic dependency and exploitation, both within and between regions. Finally, the unit explores the cultural exchanges and encounters that occurred as a result of European expansion. It examines the ways in which European ideas and practices were adapted and transformed by non-European societies, as well as the ways in which non-European cultures influenced and shaped European thought and culture. Overall, Unit four of AP World History provides a comprehensive overview of the global transformations that occurred during this period, highlighting the interconnectedness of world regions and the ways in which these connections shaped the course of history. Unit 5: Revolutions Unit five of AP World History covers the period from 1750 to 1900, during which a series of political, social, and economic revolutions transformed the world. This unit explores the causes, nature, and consequences of these revolutions, as well as their impact on global history. One of the key themes of this unit is the rise of industrialization and its impact on world societies. The unit examines the ways in which the development of new technologies and modes of production transformed the global economy and created new forms of social and economic inequality. It also explores the ways in which industrialization sparked political and social movements, such as socialism and nationalism, that challenged existing power structures. Another important theme is the growth of political revolutions and the emergence of new forms of government. The unit covers the American Revolution, the French Revolution, and the Haitian Revolution, as well as other movements for independence and self-rule in Asia and Latin America. It also explores the ways in which these revolutions redefined concepts of citizenship, democracy, and human rights. Finally, the unit examines the impact of these revolutions on global culture and identity. It explores the ways in which new forms of communication and media, such as newspapers and novels, fostered the growth of mass culture and contributed to the emergence of new national identities. It also examines the ways in which scientific and cultural exchanges reshaped world thought and culture. Overall, Unit five of AP World History provides a nuanced and complex 14 understanding of the revolutions that shaped the modern world, highlighting both their achievements and their limitations. Unit 6: Consequences of Industrialization Unit six of AP World History covers the period from 1750 to 1900, during which industrialization transformed the global economy and created new forms of social and economic organization. This unit explores the consequences of industrialization, both positive and negative, and its impact on world societies. One of the key themes of this unit is the growth of global capitalism and the emergence of new forms of economic exploitation. The unit examines the ways in which industrialization created new forms of inequality and led to the exploitation of workers and resources, as well as the growth of consumerism and materialism. It also explores the ways in which industrialization fostered the growth of imperialism and colonialism, as industrialized nations sought to expand their markets and resources. Another important theme is the impact of industrialization on social structures and cultural values. The unit covers the growth of urbanization and the emergence of new social classes, as well as the changing roles of women and the development of new forms of popular culture. It also examines the ways in which industrialization challenged existing cultural values and fostered the growth of new ideas and movements, such as socialism and feminism. Finally, the unit explores the environmental impact of industrialization and the ways in which it contributed to global environmental problems. It examines the ways in which industrialization led to the growth of pollution and resource depletion, as well as the emergence of new forms of environmentalism and conservation. Overall, Unit six of AP World History provides a comprehensive overview of the consequences of industrialization, highlighting the complex and far-reaching impact that this transformative period had on world societies and the environment. Unit 7: Global Conflict Unit seven of AP World History covers the period from 1900 to the present day, during which global conflict and the struggle for power shaped the course of world history. This unit explores the causes, nature, and consequences of these conflicts, as well as their impact on global societies. One of the key themes of this unit is the rise of nationalism and its impact on global politics. The unit examines the ways in which the growth of nationalist movements led to the outbreak of World War I, as well as the rise of fascist regimes in Europe and Asia. It also explores the ways in which nationalism contributed to the rise of anti-colonial movements and the struggle for decolonization in the post-World War II era. Another important theme is the impact of global economic systems on world societies. The unit covers the growth of global capitalism and the emergence of new economic powers, as well as the ways in which economic inequality and exploitation have contributed to social and political conflict. It also examines the ways in which economic systems have contributed to environmental problems and the struggle for sustainable development. Finally, the unit explores the cultural impact of global conflict and the ways in which art, literature, and popular culture have responded to and shaped the course of world events. examines the ways in which cultural production has been influenced by global conflict, as well as the ways in which cultural expression has contributed to social and political change. Overall, Unit seven of AP World History provides a comprehensive overview of the global conflicts and struggles for power that have shaped the modern world, highlighting the complex and often contradictory ways in which social, political, and cultural factors have intersected to shape the course of history. 15 Unit 8: Cold War and Decolonisation Unit seven of AP World History covers the period from 1900 to the present day, focusing on the Cold War and the decolonization of Africa and Asia. This unit examines the global competition between the United States and the Soviet Union, as well as the ways in which this competition influenced the course of world events. One of the key themes of this unit is the rise of the Cold War and its impact on global politics. The unit examines the ways in which the competition between the United States and the Soviet Union led to the development of new forms of military and economic power, as well as the growth of global alliances and conflicts. It also explores the ways in which the Cold War contributed to the rise of new forms of nationalism and social movements. Another important theme is the decolonization of Africa and Asia, and the struggle for self-rule and independence. The unit covers the ways in which colonial powers justified their rule, as well as the ways in which anti-colonial movements challenged these justifications. It also examines the ways in which the decolonization process contributed to the rise of new political systems and the formation of new global alliances. Finally, the unit explores the cultural impact of the Cold War and decolonizati and the ways in which art, literature, and popular culture responded to and shaped the course of world events. It examines the ways in which cultural production has been influenced by Cold War politics and decolonization movements, as well as the ways in which cultural expression has contributed to social and political change. Overall, Unit seven of AP World History provides a comprehensive overview of the Cold War and decolonization, highlighting the complex and often contradictory ways in which social, political, and cultural factors have intersected to shape the course of history. Unit 9: Globalization Unit nine of AP World History covers the period from the 1980s to the present day, during which globalization has transformed the world economy and created new forms of social and political organization. This unit examines the causes and consequences of globalization, as well as its impact on global societies. One of the key themes of this unit is the growth of global capitalism and the emergence of new economic powers. The unit explores the ways in which globalization has led to the growth of international trade and investment, as well as the emergence of new forms of economic inequal and exploitation. It also examines the ways in which globalization has contributed to the growth of transnational corporations and the emergence of new economic blocs and alliances. Another important theme is the impact of globalization on social and political structures. The unit covers the ways in which globalization has led to the growth of new social classes and the transformation of traditional social hierarchies, as well as the emergence of new forms of political organization and activism. It also explores the ways in which globalization has contributed to the growth of transnational social movements and the globalization of cultural values and norms. Finally, the unit explores the environmental impact of globalization and the ways in which it has contributed to global environmental problems. It examines the ways in which globalization has led to the growth of pollution and resource depletion, as well as the emergence of new forms of environmentalism and conservation. Overall, Unit nine of AP World History provides a comprehensive overview of globalization, highlighting the complex and often contradictory ways in which social, political, economic, and environmental factors have intersected to shape the course of history in the contemporary era. 16 < THINGS TO REMEMBER: ONE THROUGH NINE > Unit 1: The Global Tapestry The Silk Road: The Silk Road was a network of trade routes that connected Asia, Europe, and Africa. It played a significant role in the exchange of goods, ideas, and cultures between these regions. Mongol Empire: The Mongol Empire was one of the largest empires in history, and it played a significant role in shaping the world during the 13th and 14th centuries. Its founder, Genghis Khan, united the Mongol tribes and conquered vast territories in Asia and Europe. Islamic Empires: During this period, several Islamic empires emerged, including the Abbasid Caliphate, the Seljuk Empire, and the Ottoman Empire. These empires played an important role in the spread of Islam and the development of Islamic culture. European Expansion: The European powers began to expand their territories during this period, with the Portuguese and Spanish leading the way. They established trading posts and colonies in Asia, Africa, and the Americas, which had a significant impact on world history. Renaissance: The Renaissance was a period of cultural and intellectual growth that began in Italy in the 14th century and spread throughout Europe. It was marked by a renewed interest in classical learning, art, and science. Religion: The spread of religion played a significant role in this period, with Christianity, Islam, and Buddhism expanding to new regions. The Crusades and the spread of Islam in Africa and Southeast Asia were key events. Technology: Several important technological advancements were made during this period, including the invention of the printing press, gunpowder, and the compass. These innovations had a significant impact on global trade and warfare. Unit 2: Networks of Exchange Age of Exploration: The Age of Exploration was a period of European exploration and colonization that began in the late 15th century. The Portuguese, Spanish, Dutch, French, and English all established colonies in the Americas, Africa, and Asia. Renaissance and Reformation: The Renaissance was a period of cultural and intellectual growth that began in Italy in the 14th century and spread throughout Europe. The Reformation was a religious movement that began in Germany in the early 16th century and led to the formation of Protestantism. Gunpowder Empires: The Ottoman, Safavid, and Mughal empires were all gunpowder empires that emerged during this period. They used gunpowder technology to conquer and control vast territories. Transatlantic Slave Trade: The transatlantic slave trade was a system of trade that brought millions of enslaved Africans to the Americas. This trade had a significant impact on the economies and societies of both the Americas and Africa. Commercial Revolution: The Commercial Revolution was a period of economic growth and innovation that began in Europe in the 16th century. It was marked by the growth of international trade, the emergence of capitalism, and the development of new technologies. Scientific Revolution: The Scientific Revolution was a period of scientific discovery and advancement that began in Europe in the 16th century. It led to new understandings of the natural world and laid the foundation for modern science. Asian Empires: Several Asian empires, including the Ming and Qing dynasties in China, the Safavid Empire in Iran, and the Mughal Empire in India, emerged during this period. They were all significant political and cultural centers of the world. 17 Unit 3: Land-Based Empires Enlightenment: The Enlightenment was a cultural and intellectual movement that began in Europe in the 18th century. It emphasized reason, science, and individualism, and had a significant impact on political and social thought. Industrial Revolution: The Industrial Revolution was a period of rapid industrialization that began in Britain in the 18th century and spread throughout Europe and North America. It led to significant changes in manufacturing, transportation, and communication. Nationalism: Nationalism is a political and social ideology that emphasizes the importance of national identity and unity. It played a significant role in the development of modern nation-states during this period. Imperialism: Imperialism is a policy of extending a country's power and influence through colonization, use of military force, or other means. European powers, such as Britain and France, expanded their empires during this period, leading to significant geopolitical changes. Global Migration: The period from 1750 to 1900 saw significant global migration, including the forced migration of millions of Africans to the Americas, as well as voluntary migration from Europe to the Americas and Australia. Revolutions: Several important revolutions occurred during this period, including the American Revolution, the French Revolution, and the Haitian Revolution. These events had a significant impact on global politics and society. Global Interactions: The period from 1750 to 1900 saw significant global interactions, including the spread of ideas and ideologies such as communism, capitalism, and liberalism. Unit 4: Transoceanic Interconnections World War I: World War I was a global war that lasted from 1914 to 1918. It involved the major powers of Europe and ultimately led to the collapse of several empires, including the Ottoman Empire. Russian Revolution: The Russian Revolution of 1917 led to the overthrow of the Russian monarchy and the establishment of the world's first communist state. Interwar Years: The peri between World War I and II was marked by economic epression, political instability, and the rise of fascism and totalitarianism in Europe. World War II: World War II was a global war that lasted from 1939 to 1945. It involved the major powers of Europe, Asia, and North America and resulted in significant geopolitical changes, including the emergence of the United States and Soviet Union as superpowers. Cold War: The Cold War was a period of political tension and military competition between the United States and the Soviet Union that lasted from the late 1940s to the early 1990s. Decolonization: Decolonization refers to the process by which colonies gained independence from European powers in the mid-20th century. It led to significant changes in global politics and society. Globalization: Globalization is the process by which the world's economies, societies, and cultures have become more integrated. It has led to significant economic growth but has also created new challenges and inequalities. Contemporary Global Issues: Contemporary global issues such as climate change, terrorism, and human rights are important topics that students should be familiar with. Unit 5: Revolutions 18 The American Revolution: The American Revolution (1775-1783) was a political upheaval in the 13 British colonies in North America, which resulted in the formation of the United States of America. The French Revolution: The French Revolution (1789-1799) was a period of political and social upheaval in France that led to the overthrow of the monarchy, the establishment of a republic, and the Reign of Terror. Haitian Revolution: The Haitian Revolution (1791-1804) was a slave revolt in the French colony of Saint-Domingue that led to the establishment of Haiti as an independent nation. Latin American Revolutions: The Latin American revolutions were a series of uprisings against Spanish and Portuguese colonial rule in the early 19th century, which led to the independence of countries such as Mexico, Brazil, and Argentina. European Revolutions of 1848: The European Revolutions of 1848 were a series of uprisings and protests against monarchies and autocratic governments in Europe, which ultimately failed to achieve their goals. Meiji Restoration: The Meiji Restoration (1868-1912) was a political and social revolution in Japan that led to the modernization of the country and its emergence as a major world power. Unit 6: Consequences of Industrialization Urbanization: Industrialization led to the growth of cities as people migrated from rural areas to work in factories. This led to overcrowding, poor living conditions, and increased health problems. Social and economic inequality: Industrialization led to significant social and economic inequalities as the wealthy owners of factories and businesses grew richer, while workers struggled to make ends meet. Environmental degradation: Industrialization led to increased pollution, deforestation, and depletion of natural resources, which had a negative impact on the environment and human health. Colonialism and imperialism: Industrialization led to increased competition among European powers for resources and markets, which resulted in the colonization and exploitation of non-European countries. Nationalism and imperialism: Industrialization led to the emergence of powerful nation-states, and it encouraged the growth of imperialism and the pursuit of colonial expansion. Unit 7: Global Conflict World War I: World War I (1914-1918) was a global conflict that involved major world powers and resulted in the deaths of millions of people. It had a significant impact on the geopolitical landscape of the world and led to the establishment of the League of Nations. Russian Revolution: The Russian Revolution (1917) was a period of political and social upheaval in Russia that led to the overthrow of the Tsarist autocracy and the establishment of the Soviet Union. World War II:World War II (1939-1945) was a global conflict that involved major world powers and resulted in the deaths of tens of millions of people. It had a significant impact on the geopolitical landscape of the world and led to the establishment of the United Nations. Cold War: The Cold War (1947-1991) was a period of geopolitical tension between the United States and the Soviet Union, characterized by proxy wars, espionage, and the threat of nuclear war. Decolonization: The period after World War II saw the decolonization of many countries in Africa, Asia, and the Middle East, as well as the emergence of new nation-states. Globalization: The period after the Cold War saw the acceleration of globalization, as the world became increasingly interconnected through advances in technology, trade, and communication. 19 Unit 8: Cold War and Decolonisation The Cold War: The Cold War was a period of geopolitical tension between the United States and the Soviet Union that lasted from the end of World War II until the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991. The Cold War was characterized by proxy wars, espionage, and the threat of nuclear war. Decolonization: The period after World War II saw the decolonization of many countries in Africa, Asia, and the Middle East, as well as the emergence of new nation-states. This process was often violent and resulted in significant political and economic upheaval. Non-Aligned Movement: In the context of the Cold War and decolonization, the Non-Aligned Movement emerged as a political movement of countries that did not want to align themselves with either the United States or the Soviet Union. Chinese Revolution: The Chinese Revolution was a period of political and social upheaval in China that led to the establishment of the People's Republic of China in 1949. Cuban Revolution: The Cuban Revolution was a period of political and social upheaval in Cuba that led the establishment of a communist government under Fidel Castro in 1959. Vietnam War: The Vietnam War was a conflict that took place in Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia from 1955 to 1975, in which the communist forces of North Vietnam fought against the South Vietnamese government and its allies, including the United States. Unit 9: Globalization Technological advancements: The period after World War II saw significant technological advancements that have shaped globalization, including the development of computers, the internet, and social media. Global trade: The rise of global trade has been a significant driver of globalization, with multinational corporations playing a key role in the global economy. Cultural exchange: Globalization has led to increased cultural exchange between different parts of the world, including the spread of popular culture and the rise of multiculturalism. Migration: The movement of people across borders has been a key feature of globalization, with millions of people migrating to other countries in search of better opportunities. Environmental concerns: The impact of lization on the environment has become an increasingly important issue, with concerns over climate change, deforestation, and pollution. Global governance: As globalization has accelerated, the need for global governance has become more pressing, with international organizations such as the United Nations playing a key role in regulating global issues. 20 Trade: Benefits: Increased economy "Caravanserai" were various roadside inns often placed 100 miles apart, the distance a camel can go without water before needing to 'refuel,' and due to many of their placements upon the various trade routes, many small "inns" could become larger and more flourishing cities, like Kashgar or Samarkand. Kashgar and Samarkand were two inns where the northern and southern trade routes of the Silk Road intersected, and due to this, they became thriving centers of trade. KLEGA CAZUTECELY < BENEFITS VERSUS CONSEQUENCES > CARCEROGALA Kashgar sits where the Taklamakan Desert meets the Tian Shan Mountains and is watered by the Kashgar River, which helps make its lands fertile and abundant for crops such as wheat, rice, fruits, and cotton. Travelers often depended on Kashgar for both food and water. While their artisans produced textiles, rugs, leather goods, and potter. Despite having started off as a primarily Buddhist city, it also became a center of Islamic scholarship. Samarkand, which sits in present-day Uzbekistan in the Zeravshan River Valley, was a stopping point on the Silk Roads between China and the Mediterranean. Samarkand was a hub for cultural exchange alongside for trading various material goods. Over the years, archaeologists' remains have shown the presence of various religions, including but not limited to: Christianity, Buddhism, Zoroastrianism, and Islam. Like Kashgar, Samarkand is noted in many books for its artisans and its centers of Islamic learning alongside magnificently decorated mosques. Increased China's proto industrialisation A set of economic changes where people in rural areas made more goods than they could sell Increased money circulation THE FETE China was already a "money economy," opting to barter with money rather than different commodities such as cowrie shells or salt. However, they used copper coins as their currency, with a squarish hole through the center so they could be strung together onto string (pictured right). This got really 武 BE 21 CAN TOBACCO PUMPKIN QUIRING Xa **** WIDESPREAD TRANSFER OF AN PLANTS CULTUNE HO ETMEEN OLD AND NEW WORLD IN T heavy and cumbersome to carry around; however, and they switched to paper money (pictured left). Allowed for plants to be traded, leading to more variety in diets; however, the only one's college board wants us to worry about are; Citrus (Mediterranean) *FREEMAN-PEDIA Similar to bananas, citrus is a fruit that originated in Southeast Asia and was traded to the Mediterranean through the Indian Ocean and Silk Road. Around the world, warm, tropical and subtropical climates are ideal for growing citrus fruit. Citrus fruits, such as oranges, lemons, and limes, are used in a variety of cuisines and drinks and are a good source of vitamin C. Although citrus trees can be planted in a variety of climates, they do best in warm, sunny environments with well-drained soil. New rice varieties (East Asia) Champa rice, in particular, moved first from Southeast Asia to China since Vietnam was ruled by China through the system of tribute. Champa rice, which was drought-resistant and ripened early, was a gift from Vietnam to China. Since it produced more rice in a shorter amount of time, it was the ideal rice to grow. Champa rice quickly gained popularity in China, where it is now common food. Rice that is grown in the Champa region of Vietnam is known as champa rice. It is a fragrant and flavorful medium-grain rice that is utilized in a variety of recipes, such as rice porridge and rice cakes. Vietnamese farmers cultivate champa rice in the Mekong Delta, where the atmosphere is ideal for growing rice: it's warm and humid. Bananas (Africa) Bananas are native to the Pacific and Southeast Asia, and Arab traders used the Indian Ocean trade network to transport them from those regions elsewhere, particularly to Africa, where growing them proved profitable. Fruits like bananas are cultivated in tropical areas all over the world. They are a common food throughout the world and a good source of vitamins and minerals like potassium fiber, and C. Alt they are referred to as "banana trees," the huge plants that produce bananas are actually herbaceous plants that are related to lilies and orchids.Although they can be cultivated in a variety of temperatures, bananas thrive in tropical and subtropical areas of the world. Increased cultural and religious diffusion Trading people brought their customs with them as they traveled the globe. Of these, religion is the most obvious. During this time, three main religions gained ground. Buddhism, Hinduism, and Islam all spread over East and Southeast Asia, as well as sub-Saharan Africa and Asia. Japan adopted a kind of Buddhism (called Zen Buddhism) that combined their indigenous Shinto traditions with Buddhist ones as a result of trade with China and India. In particular, Xuanzang was a frequent traveler who propagated Buddhism. In the seventh century, a Chinese Buddhist monk and scholar by the name of Xuanzang traveled to India to study Buddhism. He was also known by the names Hsüan-tsang and Yuanzhang. Xuanzang was raised as a monk and 22 was born in the modern Chinese state of Henan. He had a strong commitment to Buddhism and was eager to learn more about it. Xuanzang left China in 629 and crossed into India on land via Central Asia. He traveled extensively throughout India during his 17 years there studying Buddhist texts and teachings. "The Great Tang Records on the Western Regions," a work by Xuanzang that details his journey to India, is well recognized. The book is a significant literary work as well as a significant source of knowledge on the history, culture, and society of India in the seventh century. Xuanzang is regarded as a trailblazer in the field of Buddhist research as well as a cultural mediator between China and India. Neo-Confucianism also started to gain ground in China at this time as a reaction to Buddhism. Confucianists sought to restore Confucianism to its former position of dominance in China after Buddhism (particularly during the Tang Dynasty) had become rather dominant there. As a result, they modified Confucianism to incorporate some features of Buddhism. In China, Neo-Confucianism was very popular. This merely serves to illustrate how a religion that was not indigenous to China could spread and establish such a stronghold. Asia and sub-Saharan Africa both saw an increase in the practice of Islam. Since Muhammad himself was a trader, the Islamic caliphate actively promoted trade, in contrast to many other empires at the time. Islam then started to spread quickly. Beautiful adobe mosques like the Great Mosque of Djenne began to rise in Africa, and Islam rose to prominence in several states (see Mansa Musa). Technology and innovation also spread Technology also expanded as a result of inadvertent trade, in addition to religion and culture. China produced the two major industries: papermaking and gunpowder. However, they were both enormous in very different ways. Naturally, producing paper was very practical because it was lighter, simpler to create, and, most significantly, less expensive. Particularly paper money encouraged more trade along the various routes. However, gunpowder's impacts were far more negative. It was created by a peaceful Daoist who was trying to manufacture fireworks in the beginning, and from there, it exploded. It all started when people recognized that technology might be used to reinvent weapons very quickly. China soon developed weapons and began using them in warfare before Europe quickly caught up. Stories and news through travelers spread as well These roads were used by both travelers and traders. Larger trade routes made it safer and simpler for the common individual to travel and report from different parts of the world. You'll need to be familiar with Ibn Battuta, Marco Polo, and Margery Kempe. Ibn Battuta Moroccan philosopher and explorer who lived in the 14th century and is renowned for his extensive travels both inside and outside of the Islamic world. He visited the Middle East, North Africa, Central Asia, South Asia, Southeast Asia, and China throughout his 29-year adventures. The travelog "The Travels of Ibn Battuta," written by Ibn Battuta, is well known to be a valuable resource for knowledge about Islamic history, culture, 23 How Plague is Transmitted Rodents Bubonic. Fleas Types of Plague Humans. Pneumonic. WHO WOULD WIN? All of Europe A Sick Rat Consequences: and society as well as the areas that Ibn Battuta traveled through. It is regarded as one of the best travelogs in history and a significant literary masterpiece. Marco Polo Italian merchant, explorer, and author Marco Polo is renowned for his expeditions to the Far East and his travelog "The Travels of Marco Polo," which serves as a record of his journey. Marco Polo was raised in a family of merchants and was born in the Republic of Venice. In 1271, he and his father and uncle departed from Venice and crossed Asia on foot before arriving at the Mongol court, held then by Kublai Khan. During his time working for the Khan, Marco Polo traveled much throughout the Mongol Empire and other parts of Asia. After his return to Venice in 1295, he penned "The Travels of Marco Polo," a vital source of knowledge on the Far Eastern history, culture, and society of the time. The book by Marco Polo, which has een translated into many languages, is regarded as one of the best travel accounts in history. Margery Kempe - Margery Kempe was an English mystic and religious author who is known for her book, "The Book of Margery Kempe," which is considered one of the first autobiographies in English literature. Kempe was a contemporary of the English mystic Julian of Norwich and was born in King's Lynn, England, in the fourteenth century. Kempe was married and had a large family, but she eventually devoted the rest of her life to spiritual reflection and travel. She had a number of spiritual encounters, which she chronicled in "The Book of Margery Kempe," which she had a scribe write down. The book, which is regarded as a significant contribution to medieval literature and spirituality, tells the story of Kempe's spiritual development and her meetings with God. Kempe is regarded as a trailblazing figure in the history of mysticism and English literature. Traded diseases Bubonic plague: The most common form of plague and is caused by the bite of an infected flea. Plague bacillus, Y. pestis, enters at the bite and travels through the lymphatic system to the nearest lymph node where it replicates itself. The lymph node then becomes inflamed, tense and painful, and is called a 'bubo'. Symptoms include swollen lymph nodes, which can be as large as chicken eggs, in the groin, armpit, or neck. They may be tender and warm. Others include fever, chills, headache, fatigue, and muscle aches. It lasted throughout the years of 1346 to 1353. Leprosy: An infection caused by slow-growing bacteria called Mycobacterium leprae. It can affect the nerves, skin, eyes, and lining of the nose (nasal mucosa). Symptoms include light colored or red skin patches with reduced Formication Feeling of insects crawling Leprosy Pale or pink coloured patches of skin Reddish skin patches with sensory loss. Fingers and toes shortened and deformed Deformity and paralysis Edema Ulceration on the skin Muscle weakness and Poor eyesight. 24 Biting Fly Fre Anths The Anthrax Cycle sensation, numbness and weakness in hands and feet. Anthrax: A serious infectious disease caused by gram-positive, rod-shaped bacteria known as Bacillus anthracis. It occurs naturally in soil and commonly affects domestic and wild animals around the world. People can get sick with anthrax if they come in contact with infected animals or contaminated animal products. Symptoms depend on the route of infection. They can range from a skin ulcer with a dark scab to difficulty breathing. Disease being intensified led to easy conquering of nations from different enemies. A huge battle tactic of the Mongols was to load infected people onto catapults and launch them over the city's walls, this would kill many of the people inside, allowing for an easier city takeover since the city was incredibly weakened. This was considered to be one of the first documented instances of biological warfare (1347), the next one taking place through the Russian army fighting Swedish forces barricaded in Reval in the year 1710. Bandits and thievery were also a major problem. Bandits would raid merchant caravans and outposts, killing the mer ants in the process, making solo travel on the Silk Roads extremely dangerous. There was also no law enforcement to protect the roads to ensure safety; but, with the Mongolian invasion of Asia, this would change. Another is wealth disparity, which occurs when wealth is concentrated in the hands of a few merchants and leaders. Those who controlled trade along the Silk Roads reaped huge rewards and amassed vast fortunes. This resulted in large wealth disparities in many empires, including China, and produced tensions between the lower and upper classes over the distribution of wealth. 25 Companies: < IMPORTANT COMPANIES AND PHILOSOPHIES AND PHILOSOPHERS > United Fruit Company: In the late 19th century, this US corporation dominated the global fruit and banana trade through the early 20th century. A banana republic has been referred to as companies like the United Fruit Company because of the level of influence they had over the politics, economies, and social systems of many Latin American countries. These businesses frequently promoted the expansion of transportation and communications infrastructure. But they also stood for the meddling of multinational corporations in the internal affairs of developing nations. Organizations like the United Fruit Company are crucial to maintaining Western dominance over developing nations. East India Tea Company: Prior to England's victory over the Spanish Armada, Spain and Portugal controlled the entire East Indian spice trade. Following this, England made the decision to participate in the profits by creating the East India Company and establishing commercial outposts all throughout East and Southeast Asia. But the East India Company quickly expanded beyond a simple trade company. The firm subsequently began developing political strongholds and worked actively as a representative of British imperialism in India for about two centuries, marking one of the most turbulent and troublesome eras of East meets West history in the entire world. Comprehending the East India Company's activities is almost essential to comprehending the significance of Britain's power in the East. Joint-Stock Companies: These businesses evolved into the framework on which capitalism was constructed and how cross-border trade grew. Businessmen, financiers, and politicians from Europe gathered to invest in corporations built on the idea of stock ownership in the fifteenth century. Your investment amount determined how much stock you would receive. And the number of shares you owned determined how much influence you had over the business. These companies contributed to the funding of exploration initiatives around the globe, when investors teamed up with colonists to harvest resources from diverse locations in order to make money. The British Virginia Company, which started the English colonization of North America, was one of the most well-known of these. Philosophies and their Philosophers: John Locke: 17th century Englishman who sought to understand the impact of the "laws of nature" on human liberties and equality and the implications for government. Government gets power from the people. Stresses that people have a right to overthrow an unjust government. Government's only job was to protect the people's rights. John Locke: "People have the right to life, liberty, and property." 26 Thomas Hobbes Distrusts humans, favors strong government to keep order (absolute monarchy). Promotes social contract: getting order by giving power to a monarch. Wrote "Leviathan" and believed people were naturally selfish and wicked. Thomas Hobbes: "Life is nasty, brutish, and short". Voltaire: He was a great French philosopher, writer who lived through 1694-1778. He was a supporter of social reform, he also defended freedom of religion and free trade. Voltaire: "I do not agree with a word you say, but will defend to the death your right to say it." Baron de Montesquieu: A French writer who admired Britain's government system. Favors separation of powers (checks and balances). Baron de Montesquieu: "There is no greater tyranny than that which is perpetrated under the shield of the law and in the name of justice. The less men think, the more they talk." Jean Jacques Rousseau: Philosopher who favors individual free and direct democracy. Sees social contract as an agreement by free people to form a government. People give up some freedom in favor of the common good. Jean Jacques Rousseau: "Man is born free, but everywhere else he is in chains." Mary Wollstonecraft: Writer, urges rights for women. She argues that women need quality education to be virtuous and useful. Also urges women to go into traditionally male professions like politics. Mary Wollstonecraft: "My dreams were all my own; I accounted for them to nobody; they were my refuge when annoyed-my dearest pleasure when free." 27 Facts: • For all, women held high standing and respect and could often be found in positions of power.. Cahokia: Aztecs: < AMERICAN EMPIRES FACTS AND THEIR DOWNFALL CAUSES > The Cahokia were a group of Native Americans that lived near St. Louis, Missouri. This group is best known for the large mounds they constructed for ceremonial purposes. These people utilized the rivers that were in close proximity to their tribe to trade with the other peoples of Eastern North America The Cahokia civilization was a group of mound-building peoples located near modern day St. Louis. Their most prominent accomplishment was the Cahokia mound, which was 30 meters high. Due to their location near the Ohio river, they were the center of trade and communication in the area. They traded things like tools, copper, and minerals. Around the mounds, large numbers of people lived and were eventually buried there. This showed they had social classes because people were buried with different items. They also used the mounds for rituals. The ruling Aztec people were the Mexica. They were based in Tenochtitlan, where their capital was. They expanded their empire and took over much of present-day Mexico. They traded within their empire and with allies nearby They modified their environment by building chinampas on the lake for agriculture. These patches of soil changed the environment of Tenochtitlan to create more productive agricultural land. They also practiced forced labor. As an example of this, Tenochtitlan was a planned city - a grid of streets. This is a testament to the ability of the Aztecs to force subjects to submit to their rule for the common good of society. The Mexica people, who are the founders of the Aztec empire, were located in central America. They arrived here during the mid-13th century. They had a rigid social structure that favored the military elite, who often came from the nobles. They showered warriors with honor. Women played no role in society and instead had influence at home. They were honored as warrior mothers, but had limited rights. The Aztec also loved to sacrifice people to the Sun god. They did participate in trade and often traded gold, silver, cotton, feathers, gems, and pelts. They modified their environment by building canals and artificial islands called chinampas to farm on. Their capital of Tenochtitlan was actually built in the middle of a lake. They lacked bureaucracy. Slaves worked as domestic servants and were usually sold from their families. Commoners also helped work on public works projects, like roads and canals Mayans: Three major achievements of the Mayan civilization were in architecture, astronomy and math. The Maya people were great builders who constructed roads, great cities and temples. Mayan cities had magnificent palaces, monuments with intricate designs and temple pyramids that are still evident today. They incorporated the concept of zero into their number system and learned how to make rubber out of liquid collected from plants. They also kept highly accurate calendars of everything, since their priests decided when to go to war, when to celebrate religious ceremonies, etc. The Mayan civilization was located in Central America They were also known for their fully developed writing system Their government structure was city-state based with many small "cities" ruled by separate kings and most rulers were men; veve if there no man available to rule, or if the men 28 Incas: were not old enough to rule, women were given the power (Let's go queens, we love our strong women!) Despite wars between Mayan city-states being common, and at times, Mayan city-states were overthrown; however, it was a rare sight, if ever, to see them fighting for property. More often, their fights were to gain tribute, payments from the conquered to the conqueror, and captives to be used for human sacrifice in their religious practices. Every Mayan king claimed to be descended from a god and that, upon his death, he would reunite with his ancestor-god (almost like the Chinese "Mandate of Heaven"). The Incas were a large group of indigenous people on the Western coast of South America. Their empire stretched along the coast and they conquered nearby peoples. They did trade, and this empire was unique in that trade was largely controlled by the government. Aztecs: They modified their environment by building two major roads. There was a coastal route and a mountain route. These roads stretched throughout their empire and altered the environment. They did practice forced labor. They used ayllus, or work groups, to accomplish these major works (such as the roads) for the betterment of Inca society. The Inca empire was located along the Andes mountains of South America, in modern day Peru (Machu Picchu). They lacked an official writing system and instead used threads in a quipu device. Their capital was located at Cuzco. They built roads all throughout the empire helping to facilitate trade and movement. Unlike the Aztec they didn't sacrifice humans, only animals and food. They did not believe in slavery and instead had a labor system called the 'mita'. It was required and usually had people work for the state. To farm, they modified the land into terraces to grow crops. They traded textiles, pottery, tools, and crops. Their government was more complex than the Aztecs. Reasons for their Downfalls: • Reason of decline for many of them was due to Spaniard invasion and a lack of ability to protect from their various new weapons and a lack of immunity to their diseases, that, would only slightly hinder a Spaniard but would and could wipe out an entire population of people's. Cahokia: Their decline was due to environmental problems associated with the "tragedy of the commons" phenomena, causing shortages in natural resources such as wood and animals. Their mounds are significant because they are a testament to the level of organization in their society to create such large public works, as well as the importance of religion in their tribe Their decline can be accredited to the rivers they lived on overflowing onto the banks. (Could technically be considered global warming? Or was it not a thing in that age? Or, as bad a thing in that age?) Their decline was due to the arrival of Spanish conquerors. They lacked adequate protection and resistance to disease brought by the Spanish. (The immune system can only build antibodies for something it has already fought against before; however, with most of the diseases the Spaniards brought, their immune systems had never seen them before. Therefore, there were no "antibodies" or white blood cells to fight against the diseases until much of the damage had already been done. This led to "wiping out"s of entire civilisations.) Thus, essentially, the Aztec declined due to Spanish invaders taking over. 29 Mayans: Incas: From the late eighth through the end of the ninth century, something unknown happened to shake the Maya civilization to its foundations. One by one, the Classic cities in the southern lowlands were abandoned, and by A.D. 900, Maya civilization in that region had collapsed. Their decline was due to the arrival of Spanish conquerors. Once again, they lacked resistance to disease and sufficient defense mechanisms. They again, like the Aztecs, declined due to invasion by the Spanish. * Explain the little ice age. What were the consequences? The Little Ice Age was when a process of global climatic change caused temperatures to decline drastically around much of the world. It lasted more than 500 years, temperatures were much cooler between 1000 to 1300 C.E. It affected the growing seasons which became shorter and agriculture declined in many lands which then led to famine and some areas became impossible for agriculture. Norse settlers started abandon their colonies in Greenland due to this change. ** 30 <DAR AL-ISLAM > Dar al-islam, also known as the "House of Islam" or the "Abode of Islam," is a concept in Islamic history and geography that refers to regions and territories where Islam is practiced and Muslim political and cultural influence is dominant. Here's an overview of Dar al-Islam for your AP exam: Overview: Definition: Dar al-Islam is the term used to describe the geographical areas where Islam is the predominant religion and where Muslim political and legal systems are established. Expansion of Islam: Early Expansion: Islam originated in the Arabian Peninsula in the 7th century with the revelations received by Prophet Muhammad. Under the leadership of Muhammad and his successors (caliphs), Islam rapidly spread across the Arabian Peninsula and into neighboring regions such as the Levant, Mesopotamia, and Egypt. Conquests and Empires: The Rashidun Caliphate, followed by the Umayyad and Abbasid Caliphates, expanded the boundaries of Dar al-Islam through military conquests. Muslim armies conquered vast territories, including the Persian Empire, North Africa, Spain (Al-Andalus), and parts of the Indian subcontinent. Trade Networks: Islamic merchants and traders, through the establishment of extensive trade networks such as the Trans-Saharan trade routes and Indian Ocean trade, contributed the diffusion of Islam and the expansion of Dar al-Islam into sub-Saharan Africa, Southeast Asia, and the Swahili coast. Characteristics of Dar al-Islam: Islamic Law (Sharia): In regions of Dar al-Islam, Islamic law became the legal framework for governance, guiding various aspects of personal and public life, including matters of religion, politics, economics, and social conduct. Religious Institutions: Mosques, madrasas (educational institutions), and other religious structures became centers of learning, worship, and community organization. Cultural and Intellectual Development: Islamic civilization flourished in Dar al-Islam, leading to significant contributions in the fields of science, philosophy, medicine, mathematics, architecture, and the arts. Arabic Language: Arabic, as the language of the Quran, became the primary language for religious texts, scholarship, and administration in Dar al-Islam. 31 Social Structure: Islamic societies in Dar al-Islam were characterized by a social hierarchy, with rulers, religious scholars, and merchants holding prominent positions. Slavery was also present in some regions. Syncretism and Cultural Exchange: As Islam expanded into diverse regions, it often interacted with pre-existing cultural and religious traditions, resulting in syncretism and the adoption of local customs within Islamic practice. Challenges and Decline: Fragmentation and Political Divisions: Over time, the unity of the Islamic world fragmented into various caliphates, sultanates, and dynasties, leading to political divisions and regional identities within Dar al-Islam. Mongol Invasions: The Mongol invasions in the 13th century severely impacted parts of Dar al-Islam, including the destruction of Baghdad (capital of the Abbasid Caliphate) and the weakening of Muslim empires. European Colonialism: European colonial powers, such as the British, French, and Dutch, gained control over large parts of Dar al-Islam in the modern era, leading to political and social changes and challenging Muslim political authority. **It's important to note that the concept of Dar al-Islam isn't fixed geographically and has evolved over time. ** 32 <SCRAMBLE FOR AFRICA > The "Scramble for Africa" refers to the period of intense European colonization and imperial expansion in Africa during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Here's an overview of the Scramble for Africa for your AP exam: Background: European Motives: European powers were driven by economic, political, and social factors in their quest for African territories. These motives included acquiring resources, expanding markets, gaining strategic advantages, promoting nationalism, and asserting imperial dominance. Technological Superiority: European powers possessed superior military technology, including machine guns, steamships, and telegraph systems, which provided them with an advantage over African states. Advances in Medical Science: Medical advances, particularly in the area of quinine to combat malaria, allowed Europeans to better navigate and establish settlements in Africa's interior. Timeline and Process: Berlin Conference (1884-1885): To avoid potential conflicts, major European powers convened in Berlin to negotiate and divide Africa among themselves. African representatives were excluded from this conference, and borders were arbitrarily drawn, disregarding ethnic, cultural, and linguistic divisions. Exploration and Occupation: European explorers, such as David Livingstone and Henry Morton Stanley, ventured into Africa's interior, mapping previously unexplored territories and establishing trade routes. Explorers often worked in collaboration with European powers, leading to the establishment of colonial outposts and the eventual colonization of African territories. Scramble for Resources: European powers sought control over Africa's rich natural resources, including minerals, rubber, timber, and agricultural products. This resource exploitation was driven by the industrial revolution's demands and the desire for economic prosperity. Colonization and Control: European powers established colonies, protectorates, and spheres of influence across Africa. Britain, France, Germany, Belgium, Portugal, and Italy were among the major colonial powers involved. The extent of colonization varied across regions, with some areas facing direct rule, while others experienced indirect rule or economic domination. Resistance and Collaboration: African resistance against European colonization took various forms, including armed uprisings, diplomatic negotiations, and political movements European military superiority and 33 Impact: internal divisions among African states often undermined these efforts. Some African leaders collaborated with Europeans to protect their interests or resist the influence of rival African factions. Borders and Boundaries: The arbitrary drawing of borders during the Scramble for Africa resulted in the division of ethnic, linguistic, and cultural groups, leading to long-lasting conflicts and tensions. Exploitation and Economic Dependence: European powers extracted Africa's resources for their own economic benefit, often neglecting local development. This exploitation resulted in economic dependence and hindered the growth of African industries and economies. Cultural and Social Changes: European colonization disrupted existing social structures and cultural practices. Missionary efforts aimed at spreading Christianity had a significant impact on African religious beliefs and practices. Infrastructure Development: European powers introduced modern infrastructure, such as railroads, telegraph lines, and ports, to facilitate resource extraction and trade. However, these developments primarily served colonial interests and were not always beneficial to the local population. Nationalism and Independence Movements: The experience of colonization stimulated African nationalism and independence movements, with leaders emerging to challenge colonial rule. These movements eventually led to the decolonization of Africa in the mid-20th century. 34 Geography and Early History: Archipelago located in East Asia. Early influences from China and Korea, including writing system, Buddhism, and Confucianism. Shinto as the indigenous religion. Feudal Japan: Samurai warriors and the code of bushido. Feudal hierarchy: Emperor, Shogun, Daimyo, Samurai, Peasants, and Merchants. Decentralized political power and regional domains. Tokugawa Shogunate (1603-1868): Founded by Tokugawa leyasu. Capital moved to Edo (present-day Tokyo). Centralized political power under the shogun. Imposed strict social order and isolationist policies. Sakoku policy: Restricted foreign influences and limited contact with the outside world. Peaceful and prosperous period, known as the Pax Tokugawa. Growth of urban centers and merchant class (chonin). Neo-Confucianism as the dominant intellectual ideology. Economy and Society: Agriculture was the backbone of the economy. Rise of a market economy and monetization. Urbanization and growth of cities. < JAPAN> Social stratification: Samurai, peasants, artisans, and merchants. Status restrictions and sumptuary laws. Culture and the Arts: Kabuki theater, Noh drama, and Bunraku puppetry. Woodblock prints (ukiyo-e) and artists like Hokusai and Hiroshige. Haiku poetry and Matsuo Basho. Tea ceremony and Zen Buddhism. Edo literature and popular culture. Decline of the Shogunate: Internal challenges: Corruption, economic strains, social unrest. Arrival of foreign powers, notably Commodore Matthew Perry's expedition in 1853. Growing discontent among lower classes and rural samurai (ronin). The Meiji Restoration (1868) and the end of the Shogunate. Meiji Era and Modernization: Restoration of imperial rule under Emperor Meiji. Rapid modernization and Westernization. Abolition of feudalism and samurai class. Industrialization, infrastructure development, and military reforms. Western-style education system. 35 New constitution and establishment of a constitutional monarchy. Imperial Expansion and World War II: Imperial ambitions and expansion into Korea, Manchuria, and other parts of Asia. Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895) and Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905). Japan's role in World War I and the Treaty of Versailles. Militarization, ultranationalism, and the rise of militarist factions. Invasion of China (1937) and the Pacific War (1941-1945). Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, leading to Japan's surrender. Post-War Japan and Economic Miracle: Occupation by Allied forces and the role of General Douglas MacArthur. Post-war constitutional reforms and democratic development. Economic recovery and the "Japanese economic miracle." High-tech industries, automobile manufacturing, and onsumer electronics. Global economic influence and trade surplus. 36 Overview: < RUSSIA/THE USSR > Geography and Early History: Largest country in the world, spanning both Eastern Europe and Northern Asia. Varied geography, including vast plains, mountains (such as the Ural Mountains), and major rivers (Volga, Yenisei, Lena). Early Slavic settlements and Viking influences. Adoption of Eastern Orthodox Christianity under Prince Vladimir I in 988. Mongol Rule and the Rise of Muscovy: Mongol invasion in the 13th century led to the subjugation of Russian principalities under the Golden Horde. Moscow emerged as a powerful principality under Ivan III (Ivan the Great), who successfully challenged Mongol rule in the late 15th century. Tsardom and Imperial Russia: Ivan IV (Ivan the Terrible) expanded Russian territories and centralized power during the 16th century. Peter the Great's reign (1682-1725) initiated Westernization and modernization efforts. Expansion under Catherine the Great (1762-1796) expanded Russia's borders and influence. Serfdom as the predominant labor system, limiting social mobility and economic development. Decembrist Revolt and Reforms: The Decembrist Revolt of 1825 reflected opposition to autocratic rule and desire for political reforms. Alexander II (1855-1881) enacted several reforms, including the emancipation of serfs in 1861. Industrialization and Social Change: Late 19th and early 20th centuries saw rapid industrialization, especially in heavy industries like coal, steel, and railways. Growth of urban centers, emergence of a working class, and rising social tensions. Revolutionary movements, including the Socialist-Revolutionaries and Bolsheviks. Russian Revolution and Soviet Era: 1917 Russian Revolution: Overthrow of the monarchy and establishment of a provisional government, followed by the Bolshevik seizure of power led by Vladimir Lenin. Creation of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) in 1922. Communist rule under Lenin and later Joseph Stalin, characterized by central planning, collectivization, and industrialization. Repression, purges, and mass political violence during the Stalinist era. World War II and the Soviet Union's crucial role in defeating Nazi Germany. Cold War and Superpower Status: Emergence of the USSR as a superpower and rival to the United States during the Cold War. Arms race, space race, and proxy conflicts between the two blocs. Soviet control over Eastern European countries through the Warsaw Pact. Economic stagnation, corruption, and social discontent during the later years of Soviet rule. 37 Tsars: Perestroika, Glasnost, and the Collapse of the USSR: Mikhail Gorbachev's policies of perestroika (economic restructuring) and glasnost (openness) aimed at reforming the Soviet system. Political, economic, and social upheaval, including demands for greater autonomy by Soviet republics. Dissolution of the USSR in 1991, leading to the formation of independent states, including the Russian Federation. Post-Soviet Russia: Tensions with the West, conflicts in the Caucasus region (Chechnya), and the annexation of Crimea in 2014. Economic challenges, including dependence on oil and gas exports. Consolidation of power underVladimir Putin, including changes to the political system and limitations on political opposition. Influence of state-controlled media and concerns about human rights and freedom of expression. Culture and Intellectual Contributions: Rich cultural heritage, including literature, music, visual arts, and ballet. Renowned literary figures such as Fyodor Dostoevsky, Leo Tolstoy, and Anton Chekhov. Contributions to classical music by composers like Tchaikovsky and Rachmaninoff. Avant-garde movements, including the Russian Revolution's impact on artistic expression. Scientific achievements, including advancements in space exploration and mathematics. Religion and Society: Eastern Orthodox Christianity as the predominant religion, shaping cultural and social norms. Ethnic diversity within Russia, with numerous ethnic groups and languages. Challenges related to nationalism, regional autonomy, and minority rights. Foreign Relations: Evolving relationship with the West, from Cold War tensions to cooperation and conflicts. Influence in the former Soviet republics and the concept of the "near abroad." Engagement with international organizations, including membership in the United Nations and involvement in global affairs. Ivan the Terrible (Ivan IV) - Ruled from 1547 to 1584: Consolidated power and expanded the Russian territories. Instituted a reign of terror, including the oprichnina, a state policy of repression and purges. Completed the conquest of the Khanates of Kazan and Astrakhan, expanding Russia's control over Siberia. Peter the Great (Peter I) - Ruled from 1682 to 1725: Undertook extensive reforms to modernize Russia and transform it into a major European power. Established the city of St. Petersburg as a new capital and symbol of Russia's Westernization. 38 Introduced Western cultural and technological influences, including reforms in the military, government, and industry. Initiated territorial expansion, particularly in the Baltic region. Catherine the Great (Catherine II) - Ruled from 1762 to 1796: Expanded Russia's territory, particularly in the Black Sea region and Poland. Promoted Westernization, education, and culture. Implemented administrative reforms and legal reforms, including the establishment of a legislative commission. Encountered challenges and resistance from the nobility, serfs, and peasant uprisings. Nicholas II - Ruled from 1894 to 1917: Last tsar of Russia and the Romanov dynasty. Faced significant challenges, including the Russo-Japanese War and the 1905 Revolution. Suppres political opposition and maintained autocratic rule. Involvement in World War I led to further discontent and eventually the Russian Revolution of 1917. Alexander II - Ruled from 1855 to 1881: Known as the "Tsar Liberator" for his reforms, particularly the emancipation of serfs in 1861. Implemented other significant reforms, such as the judicial system and military reforms. Faced resistance from conservative forces and experienced assassination attempts. Alexander I - Ruled from 1801 to 1825: Ruled during the Napoleonic era and the French invasion of Russia. Played a crucial role in defeating Napoleon and participated in the Congress of Vienna. Initiated administrative and educational reforms. 39 Rulers: Julius Caesar - Ruled from 49 BC to 44 BC: Roman general and statesman who played a crucial role in the demise of the Roman Republic. Implemented significant political and social reforms. Assassinated in 44 BC, leading to the rise of the Roman Empire. Augustus Ruled from 27 BC to 14 AD: <ITALY > The first Roman emperor and founder of the Roman Empire. Instituted administrative, military, and economic reforms that contributed to a period of stability and prosperity. Known as the "Pax Romana" (Roman Peace). Charlemagne - Ruled from 768 to 814: King of the Franks and Lombards, later crowned as the Holy Roman Emperor. Expanded the Frankish Empire and promoted education and cultural revival. Known for his Carolingian Renaissance. Otto I - Ruled from 962 to 973: King of Germany and founder of the Holy Roman Empire. Consolidated power and expanded the empire through military campaigns. Strengthened ties between the Catholic Church and the empire. Frederick II Ruled from 1220 to 1250: Holy Roman Emperor and King of Sicily. Promoted cultural exchange between the Italian city-states and the Islamic world. Patron of arts and sciences, establishing the University of Naples. Cosimo de' Medici - Ruled from 1434 to 1464: Leading figure of the Medici family, a prominent Florentine banking and political dynasty. Patron of the arts and sponsor of the Renaissance. Consolidated political power and established a de facto hereditary rule in Florence. Savonarola - Dominant influence from 1494 to 1498: Dominican friar who rose to power in Florence during the late 15th century. Imposed a theocratic regime and initiated the "Bonfire of the Vanities" campaign. Overthrown and executed in 1498. Victor Emmanuel II - Ruled from 1861 to 1878: First King of a united Italy after the Risorgimento (Italian unification movement). Played a crucial role in the unification of Italy. Transformed the fragmented Italian states into a constitutional monarchy. Benito Mussolini - Ruled from 1922 to 1943 (as Prime Minister): Fascist dictator who rose to power and established a totalitarian regime in Italy. Pursued aggressive foreign policies and aligned Italy with Nazi Germany. Overthrown in 1943 during World War II. 40 General Overview: Roman Empire: Italy was the birthplace of the Roman Empire, which was one of the most powerful and influential civilizations in ancient history. The Roman Empire played a crucial role in shaping Western civilization, with significant contributions in areas such as law, architecture, literature, and engineering. Renaissance: Italy was the center of the Renaissance, a period of great cultural and intellectual change that took place in Europe between the 14th and 17th centuries. Italian city-states such as Florence, Venice, and Rome became hubs of artistic and intellectual activity, with renowned figures like Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, and Galileo making significant contributions. Italian City-States: During the Renaissance, Italy was fragmented into numerous city-states, each with its own government and ruling family. These city-states, including Florence, Milan, Venice, and Genoa, competed with each other in terms of trade, wealth, and cultural influence. Catholic Church: The Vatican City, an independent city-state located within Rome, is the spiritual and administrative headquarters of the Roman Catholic Church. The influence of the Catholic Church in Italy and its role in European politics has been significant throughout history. Italian Unification: Italy was unified as a single nation-state in 1861 under the leadership of figures like Giuseppe Garibaldi and Count Camillo di Cavour. The process of Italian unification, known as the Risorgimento, aimed to unify the various Italian states and regions into one cohesive country. Fascism and Benito Mussolini: In the early 20th century, Italy experienced the rise of fascism under Benito Mussolini. Mussolini established a totalitarian regime, known as the Fascist Party, and ruled Italy from 1922 to 1943. Italy's alliance with Nazi Germany during World War II resulted in significant consequences for the country. Post-World War II: Following World War II, Italy transitioned to a democratic republic. The Italian economy experienced significant growth during the post-war period, becoming one of the world's leading industrial nations. However, Italy also faced challenges such as political instability, corruption, and economic disparities between the north and south. European Union: Italy is a founding member of the European Union (EU), which it joined in 1957. As an EU member, Italy has been part of the Eurozone and has benefited from economic integration and participation in the EU's decision-making processes. 41 Cultural Contributions: Italy has made substantial contributions to art, literature, architecture, and cuisine. Italian artists, writers, and thinkers have played a vital role in shaping Western culture, and Italian cuisine is renowned worldwide. Geographic Features: Italy has a distinctive geographic shape, resembling a boot, with the Mediterranean Sea surrounding it on three sides. It has diverse landscapes, including the Italian Alps, the Apennine Mountains, fertile plains like the Po Valley, and numerous islands such as Sicily and Sardinia. 42 Overview: < ENGLAND > Anglo-Saxons: The Anglo-Saxons were a Germanic people who migrated to England in the 5th and 6th centuries. They established several kingdoms and had a significant impact on the culture, language, and political development of England. Norman Conquest: In 1066, England was invaded by William the Conqueror, Duke of Normandy, in an event known as the Norman Conquest. The Norman Conquest led to the establishment of Norman rule in England, with William I becoming the first Norman king of England. Magna Carta: The Magna Carta, signed in 1215, was a document that limited the power of the English monarchy and established certain rights for English nobles. It is considered a foundational document in the development of constitutional law and individual liberties. Hundred Years' War: The Hundred Years' War, fought between England and France from 1337 to 1453, was a series of conflicts over territorial claims and the English monarchy's control over parts of France. The war had significant military, social, and economic impacts on both countries. Tudor Dynasty: The Tudor dynasty, which began with Henry VII in 1485, marked a period of stability and significant changes in England. Under Henry VIII and his daughter Elizabeth I, England experienced religious reform, exploration, and the growth of a strong centralized monarchy. English Reformation: The English Reformation, initiated by Henry VIII in the 16th century, led to England breaking away from the authority of the Roman Catholic Church and establishing the Church of England as the country's national church. Industrial Revolution: England played a pivotal role in the Industrial Revolution, which began in the late 18th century and transformed society through mechanization, urbanization, and technological advancements. England's coal and iron resources, along with its favorable legal and economic conditions, contributed to industrial growth. British Empire: From the 16th to the 20th century, England, and later Great Britain, built a vast overseas empire, becoming one of the most powerful colonial powers in history. The British Empire had colonies and territories around the world, which brought immense wealth, but also raised ethical and political questions. Parliamentary Democracy: England is recognized as the birthplace of modern parliamentary democracy. The Magna Carta, the Glorious Revolution of 1688, and sequent reforms gradually shifted power from the 43 Rulers: monarchy to Parliament, establishing the framework for a constitutional monarchy and democratic governance. Commonwealth: After the decline of the British Empire, many former colonies, including Canada, Australia, and India, became part of the Commonwealth of Nations. The Commonwealth is an intergovernmental organization that promotes cooperation among its member countries, with Queen Elizabeth II as its symbolic head. William the Conqueror (1066-1087): William the Conqueror, also known as William I, led the Norman Conquest of England and became the first Norman king of England. Henry II (1154-1189): Henry II, a Plantagenet king, implemented legal reforms and established the Angevin Empire, which included England and large parts of France. Richard the Lionheart (1189-1199): Richard I, known as Richard the Lionheart, was a renowned military leader who participated in the Third Crusade. He spent much of his reign abroad and was captured during his return journey from the Holy Land. King John (1199-1216): King John is best known for signing the Magna Carta in 1215, which limited the power of the English monarchy and established certain rights for the nobles. Henry VIII (1509-1547): Henry VIII, a Tudor monarch, is remembered for his role in the English Reformation. He broke away from the Roman Catholic Church, established the Church of England, and dissolved the monasteries. Elizabeth I (1558-1603): Elizabeth I, also known as the Virgin Queen, was one of England's most famous monarchs. Her reign was characterized by the defeat of the Spanish Armada, the flourishing of the arts, and the expansion of English influence overseas. James I (1603-1625): James I of England, also James VI of Scotland, united the crowns of England and Scotland. He sponsored the translation of the Bible into English, which resulted in the King James Version. Oliver Cromwell (1649-1658): Although not a monarch, Oliver Cromwell was a key figure during the English Civil War. As Lord Protector, he ruled England, Scotland, and Ireland as a republic known as the Commonwealth of England. 44 William III and Mary II (1689-1702): William III and Mary II, known as the Glorious Revolution, ascended the English throne after the overthrow of James II. Their reign brought about a constitutional shift, limiting the powers of the monarchy and establishing parliamentary sovereignty. Victoria (1837-1901): Queen Victoria's reign, known as the Victorian era, marked a period of significant industrial, political, and social change in Britain. The British Empire expanded greatly during her rule, making it the largest empire in history at the time. 45 Overview: <FRANCE > French Revolution: The French Revolution, which began in 1789, was a period of radical political and social upheaval in France. It resulted in the overthrow of the Bourbon monarchy, the rise of Napoleon Bonaparte, and significant changes in political and social structures. Napoleon Bonaparte: Napoleon Bonaparte came to power as First Consul and later declared himself Emperor of the French. He initiated a series of military campaigns, implemented legal and administrative reforms known as the Napoleonic Code, and had a profound impact on Europe. French Empire: Under Napoleon's rule, France expanded its territory, creating the French Empire, which included much of continental Europe. The empire collapsed in 1815 after Napoleon's defeat at the Battle of Waterloo. Industrialization: France underwent industrialization in the 19th century, transitioning from an agrarian society to an industrial one. This led to urbanization, economic growth, and social changes. July Revolution of 1830: The July Revolution resulted in the overthrow of the Bourbon monarchy and the establishment of the constitutional July Monarchy, with Louis-Philippe as the "Citizen King." French Third Republic: The French Third Republic was established in 1870 following the fall of Napoleon III's Second Empire. It endured until 1940 and faced challenges such as political instability, the Dreyfus Affair, and World War I. World Wars: France played a significant role in both World War I and World War II. It was one of the major European powers and suffered heavy casualties in the wars. Vichy France: During World War II, France was occupied by Nazi Germany, and a collaborationist regime known as Vichy France, led by Philippe Pétain, governed the southern part of the country. European Union: France is a founding member of the European Union (EU) and has been a key player in shaping its policies and institutions. France has been an advocate for European integration and has contributed significantly to the EU's development. - French Culture and Influence: France has made significant cultural contributions in areas such as art, literature, philosophy, and cuisine. French thinkers, writers, and artists, including Voltaire, Rousseau, Victor Hugo, and Claude Monet, have had a profound impact on Western culture. 46 Rulers: Louis XIV (1643-1715): Louis XIV, known as the Sun King, reigned for the longest period in French history. He centralized power, built the Palace of Versailles, and pursued an aggressive foreign policy, solidifying France's status as a European power. Napoleon Bonaparte (1799-1814/1815): As mentioned earlier, Napoleon Bonaparte rose to power during the French Revolution and became Emperor of the French. He conducted military campaigns, introduced reforms, and reshaped Europe through the Napoleonic Wars. Louis XVIII (1814-1824): Louis XVIII, the brother of Louis XVI, was restored to the French throne after Napoleon's defeat. His reign marked the restoration of the Bourbon monarchy and the attempt to reconcile revolutionary principles with the return of the old regime. Louis-Philippe (1830-1848): Louis-Philippe, known as the Citizen King, ruled during the July Monarchy. He was a constitutional monarch and presided over a period of relative stability and economic growth in France. Napoleon III (1852-1870): Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte, nephew of Napoleon Bonaparte, became Emperor Napoleon III. He pursued a policy of modernization, oversaw the rebuilding of Paris, and expanded France's overseas colonies. Third French Republic (1870-1940): The Third French Republic was established after the fall of Napoleon III's Second Empire. It endured through political crises, the Dreyfus Affair, and World War I, until it was dissolved with the establishment of Vichy France during World War II. Charles de Gaulle (1944-1946, 1958-1969): Charles de Gaulle was a key figure during World War II and led the Free French Forces against Nazi Germany. He later served as President of the French Republic and played a crucial role in shaping post-war France. François Mitterrand (1981-1995): François Mitterrand was the first socialist president of the Fifth French Republic. He implemented social and economic reforms and led France during a period of European integration and globalization. Jacques Chirac (1995-2007): Jacques Chirac served as President of France for two terms. He navigated domestic and international challenges, including economic reforms, social unrest, and the Iraq War. 47 Emmanuel Macron (2017-present): Emmanuel Macron is the current President of France. He came to power as a centrist and has pursued economic and political reforms, both domestically and within the European Union. 48 Overview: <CUBA > Spanish Colonial Rule: Cuba was colonized by Spain in the 16th century and remained under Spanish control for over four centuries. It served as an important hub for Spanish trade and as a center for the sugar industry, relying heavily on enslaved African labor. Ten Years' War: The Ten Years' War (1868-1878) was a Cuban struggle for independence from Spain. While the war did not result in independence, it set the stage for future movements and rebellions against Spanish rule. Cuban War of Independence: The Cuban War of Independence, also known as the Cuban War of 1895, was a significant armed conflict fought by Cuban rebels against Spanish rule. It ended in 1898 with the intervention of the United States during the Spanish-American War. U.S. Occupation: After the Spanish-American War, the United States occupied Cuba from 1898 to 1902. This period marked a significant influence on Cuba's political, economic, and social structures, with the United States retaining control over certain aspects of Cuban affairs. Cuban Revolution: The Cuban Revolution, led by Fidel Castro and other revolutionary forces, overthrew the U.S.-backed dictator Fulgencio Batista in 1959. The revolution brought about a socialist government under Castro's leadership and implemented agrarian and social reforms. Cold War and Cuban Missile Crisis: Cuba became a focal point of the Cold War due to its socialist government and close relationship with the Soviet Union. The Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962 brought the world to the brink of nuclear war, with tensions escalating between the United States and the Soviet Union over the placement of nuclear missiles in Cuba. Fidel Castro's Leadership: Fidel Castro served as the Prime Minister of Cuba from 1959 to 1976 and then as the President from 1976 to 2008. His leadership had a profound impact on Cuba's political and economic systems, as well as its relationship with the United States and the world. Socialist Policies: Under Castro's leadership, Cuba implemented socialist policies, including nationalization of industries, land reforms, and the establishment of a planned economy. The government provided free education and healthcare but faced challenges such as economic hardships and restrictions on individual freedoms. 49 Rulers: Special Period: After the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, Cuba entered a period of economic crisis known as the Special Period. The loss of Soviet subsidies resulted in severe shortages of food, fuel, and other basic necessities. Current Developments: Following Fidel Castro's retirement in 2008, his brother Raúl Castro assumed the presidency. In recent years, Cuba has undergone limited economic reforms, diplomatic normalization with the United States, and a gradual opening up to foreign investment. Fulgencio Batista (1940-1944, 1952-1959): Batista first served as the President of Cuba from 1940 to 1944 and later staged a coup in 1952, establishing a military dictatorship. His rule was marked by corruption, repression, and inequality, leading popular discontent and the eventual success of the Cuban Revolution. Fidel Castro (1959-2008): Fidel Castro led the Cuban Revolution and served as the Prime Minister of Cuba from 1959 to 1976, and then as the President from 1976 to 2008. He implemented socialist policies, nationalized industries, and established a planned economy. Castro's leadership had a significant impact on Cuba's domestic and foreign policies. Raúl Castro (2008-2018): Raúl Castro, Fidel Castro's brother, succeeded him as the President of Cuba in 2008. He implemented limited economic reforms, including the expansion of private enterprise and the relaxation of some travel restrictions. Raúl Castro stepped down from the presidency in 2018, marking a transition to a new generation of leaders. - Miguel Díaz-Canel (2018-present): Miguel Díaz-Canel became the President of Cuba in 2018, succeeding Raúl Castro. He represent of leaders and has continued some of the economic and political reforms initiated by his predecessors. new 50 Overview: < HAITI > Haitian Revolution: The Haitian Revolution (1791-1804) was a successful slave revolt against French colonial rule in Saint-Domingue, which was the name of Haiti at the time. Led by figures like Toussaint Louverture, Jean-Jacques Dessalines, and Henri Christophe, it resulted in the establishment of the first independent Black republic in the Americas. Toussaint Louverture: Toussaint Louverture was a key leader during the Haitian Revolution. He played a significant role in organizing the resistance against French forces and achieving emancipation for enslaved people in Haiti. Although captured and imprisoned by the French, his legacy as a revolutionary leader is celebrated. Jean-Jacques Dessalines: Jean-Jacques Dessalines was military leader and statesman who declared Haiti's independence in 1804. He became the first ruler of independent Haiti, assuming the title Emperor Jacques I. He sought to establish a new political and social order but was assassinated in 1806. Impact of the Haitian Revolution: The Haitian Revolution had profound implications for the Caribbean region and beyond. It challenged the institution of slavery, inspired other anti-colonial movements, and contributed to the decline of European colonialism in the Americas. French Reparations: Following Haiti's independence, France demanded substantial reparations for lost property and the loss of enslaved labor. This burden of debt severely hindered Haiti's economic development and had long-lasting consequences for the country's stability. Dictatorship and Instability: Haiti has experienced periods of political instability and authoritarian rule throughout its history. Various dictators, such as François Duvalier (Papa Doc) and his son Jean-Claude Duvalier (Baby Doc), ruled Haiti for several decades, suppressing opposition and perpetuating a climate of fear. Earthquake of 2010: In 2010, Haiti was struck by a devastating earthquake, which caused significant loss of life, destruction of infrastructure, and economic setbacks. The earthquake exacerbated Haiti's existing challenges, including poverty, corruption, and weak governance. Challenges and Poverty: Haiti is one of the poorest countries in the Western Hemisphere, facing numerous challenges such as political instability, economic struggles, and natural disasters. Issues like limited access to healthcare, education, and basic infrastructure persist in the country. 51 Rulers: Influence of Vodou: Vodou, a syncretic religion with roots in African and Haitian indigenous traditions, plays a significant role in Haitian culture and identity. It has been a source of spiritual and cultural resilience for the Haitian people. Diaspora and International Relations: Haiti has a large diaspora population, with many Haitians living abroad, particularly in the United States, Canada, and the Dominican Republic. The country maintains diplomatic relations with various nations and has been a recipient of international aid and assistance. Toussaint Louverture (1801-1802): Toussaint Louverture was a key leader during the Haitian Revolution. He rose to prominence as a military commander and became the de facto ruler of Saint-Domingue. He implemented reforms and fought against French and Spanish forces before being captured and imprisoned by the French. Jean-Jacques Dessalines (1804-1806): Jean-Jacques Dessalines declared Haiti's independence in 1804 and became the first ruler of independent Haiti. He assumed the title Emperor Jacques I and sought to establish a new political and social order. He was assassinated in 1806. Henri Christophe (1807-1820): Henri Christophe was a prominent leader during the Haitian Revolution. After Dessalines' assassination, he emerged as a key figure in the north of Haiti. He declared himself King Henry I and established a separate monarchy in the Kingdom of Northern Haiti. Alexandre Pétion (1807-1818): Alexandre Pétion was a military leader and statesman who played a significant role in the Haitian Revolution. He served as the President of the Republic of Haiti and led the southern region of Haiti. He advocated for agrarian reforms and support for Latin American indeper movements. Jean-Pierre Boyer (1818-1843): Jean-Pierre Boyer succeeded Alexandre Pétion as President of Haiti. He reunified the north and south regions of Haiti, restoring political stability. Boyer also sought to expand Haiti's influence by briefly occupying the neighboring Dominican Republic. François Duvalier (1957-1971): François Duvalier, also known as Papa Doc, was a dictator who ruled Haiti with an iron fist. He established a repressive regime characterized by human rights abuses and political persecution. Duvalier's regime was marked by the creation of a paramilitary force known as the Tontons Macoutes. 52 Jean-Claude Duvalier (1971-1986): Jean-Claude Duvalier, the son of François Duvalier, succeeded his father as President of Haiti. Also known as Baby Doc, his regime continued the authoritarian rule and human rights abuses of his father's regime. He was eventually ousted by popular uprising in 1986. Jean-Bertrand Aristide (1991-1996, 2001-2004): Jean-Bertrand Aristide was a popularly elected President of Haiti. He became the country's first democratically elected leader after the fall of the Duvalier regime. However, his presidency was marked by political and social turmoil, and he was removed from power on two occasions. 53 Rulers: Ancient Egypt (c. 3100 BCE - 332 BCE): Narmer (c. 3100 BCE): Unified Upper and Lower Egypt, establishing the First Dynasty. Pharaohs of the Old Kingdom (c. 2686 BCE - 2181 BCE): Djoser, Sneferu, Khufu, Khafre, and Menkaure. Pharaohs of the New Kingdom (c. 1550 BCE - 1070 BCE): Hatshepsut, Thutmose III, Akhenaten, Tutankhamun, Ramesses II (Ramesses the Great). Carthage (c. 814 BCE - 146 BCE): Hannibal Barca (247 BCE - 183 BCE): Carthaginian military leader who famously waged war against Rome in the Second Punic War. Aksumite Empire (c. 100 CE - 940 CE): Christianity, making it the first African state to adopt the Ezana (c. 320 CE): Converted religion. Ghana Empire (c. 4th century - 1235 CE): Tunka Manin (1062 CE 1076 CE): < AFRICA > One of the wealthiest and most powerful rulers of the Ghana Empire. Mali Empire (c. 1230 CE - 1600 CE): Sundiata Keita (c. 1230 CE): Founded the Mali Empire and became its first emperor. Mansa Musa (c. 1312 CE-1337 CE): Famous for his pilgrimage to Mecca and renowned for his wealth and patronage of arts and scholarship. Songhai Empire (c. 1464 CE - 1591 CE): Sunni Ali (c. 1464 CE - 1492 CE): Founded the Songhai Empire and expanded its territory through military conquest. Askia Muhammad I (1493 CE - 1528 CE): Known for his administrative reforms and promotion of Islam. Kanem-Bornu Empire (c. 9th century - 1893 CE): Mai Idris Alooma (c. 1571 CE - 1603 CE): Expanded the empire's territory, established an efficient bureaucracy, and promoted Islam. Zulu Kingdom (c. early 19th century - 1897 CE): Shaka Zulu (c. 1816 CE 1828 CE): Unified various tribes into a centralized Zulu Kingdom and implemented military innovations. Ethiopia (1270 CE - Present): Emperor Menelik II (1889 CE - 1913 CE): Successfully resisted Italian colonization attempts at the Battle of Adwa in 1896. 54 Algeria (1962 CE - Present): Ahmed Ben Bella (1962 CE - 1965 CE): South Africa (1994 CE - Present): First President of Algeria after gaining independence from France. Nelson Mandela (1994 CE - 1999 CE): First democratically elected President of South Africa, known for his anti-apartheid activism. Overview: Prehistoric Africa: Early human species, such as Australopithecines and Homo habilis, originated in Africa. The development of tools and the transition to Homo sapiens occurred in Africa. Rock art and archaeological sites, like those in the Sahara, reveal ancient African cultures. Ancient Civilizations: Ancient Egypt (c. 3100 BCE - 332 BCE): Flourishing civilization along the Nile River, known for its pyramids, pharaohs, and hieroglyphics. Carthage (c. 814 BCE - 146 BCE): Powerful city-state in North Africa, known for its maritime trade and conflicts with Rome. Kingdom of Kush (c. 785 BCE-350 CE): Nubian kingdom that conquered Egypt, blending Egyptian and African cultures. West African Empires: Ghana Empire (c. 4th century - 1235 CE): Flourishing trade empire that controlled the trans-Saharan trade routes, particularly gold and salt. Mali Empire (c. 1230 CE - 1600 CE): Expanded from Ghana and reached its peak under Mansa Musa, known for his pilgrimage to Mecca and wealth. - Songhai pire (c. 1464 CE 1591 CE): Successor to Mali, known for its trading city of Timbuktu and its scholarly and cultural achievements. East African Empires and Trading Cities: Aksumite Empire (c. 100 CE - 940 CE): Thriving kingdom in present-day Ethiopia and Eritrea, known for its trade with the Mediterranean and adoption of Christianity. Swahili Coast: Flourishing trading cities along the eastern coast of Africa, such as Kilwa, Sofala, and Mombasa, influenced by Arab, Persian, and Indian traders. European Colonization: Transatlantic Slave Trade: From the 16th to the 19th century, millions of Africans were enslaved and transported to the Americas. 55 Scramble for Africa (late 19th early 20th century): European powers, such as Britain, France, Germany, Belgium, and Portugal, colonized most of Africa, exploiting its resources and establishing colonial administrations. Independence Movements and Post-Colonial Africa: Pan-Africanism: Movement promoting African unity and liberation from colonial rule, led by figures like Marcus Garvey, W.E.B. Du Bois, and Kwame Nkrumah. Independence Movements: Throughout the mid-20th century, many African nations gained independence, often led by influential figures like Jomo Kenyatta (Kenya), Julius Nyerere (Tanzania), and Nelson Mandela (South Africa). Challenges and Achievements: Post-independence Africa faced challenges such as political instability, ethnic conflicts, and economic issues, but also witnessed notable achievements in areas of education, health, and infrastructure. Contemporary Africa: Regional Organizations: The African Union (AU) and Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) are examples of regional bodies working towards unity and development. Economic Growth: Several African countries have experienced notable economic growth, with sectors such as telecommunications, agriculture, and services expanding. Challenges and Opportunities: Africa continues to face challenges like poverty, corruption, conflicts, and climate change, but also offers opportunities for development, investment, and regional cooperation. 56 <MAJOR THEMES FROM PREVIOUS EXAMS OVER THE YEARS > Global Interactions and Exchanges: This theme focuses on the interconnectedness of different regions and civilizations through trade, exploration, and cultural diffusion. It may cover topics such as the Silk Road, transatlantic slave trade, Columbian Exchange, global migration patterns, or the impact of European imperialism. Social, Political, and Economic Structures: This theme explores the development and organization of societies and the systems of power, governance, and economic activities that shaped them. Topics may include feudalism, empires and states, social hierarchies, political revolutions, economic systems (capitalism, socialism), and nation-building processes. Technological Innovations and Environmental Transformations: This theme examines the impact of technological advancements on societies and the environment. It may cover topics such as the Industrial Revolution, scientific discoveries, agricultural innovations, the Green Revolution, or the effects of urbanization and industrialization on the environment. Cultural and Intellectual Developments: This theme explores the ideas, beliefs, artistic expressions, and cultural movements that shaped societies. It may cover topics such as religion, philosophy, art, literature, scientific advancements, Enlightenment ideals, or cultural syncretism. Nationalism, Imperialism, and Decolonization: This theme focuses on the rise of nation-states, the expansion of empires, and the processes of decolonization. It may cover topics such as the rise of nationalism, colonialism, anti-colonial movements, the impact of World Wars on imperialism, or the struggles for independence. Global Conflicts and their Consequences: This theme examines major conflicts and their political, social, and economic consequences. It may cover topics such as World War I, World War II, the Cold War, decolonization conflicts, regional conflicts, or the impact of globalization on conflicts. 57 Downfall: < THE ABBASID CALIPHATE > Political Fragmentation: The vast extent of the Abbasid Caliphate led to difficulties in governance and administration. As the empire expanded, local governors gained more autonomy, leading to the rise of regional dynasties. This fragmentation weakened the central authority and undermined the unity of the caliphate. Revolts and Civil Strife: The Abbasid Caliphate witnessed numerous internal revolts and conflicts. The empire faced uprisings from various factions, including disgruntled military leaders, religious sects, and regional governors seeking greater independence. These internal conflicts drained resources, disrupted governance, and weakened the state. Economic Challenges: Economic problems plagued the Abbasid Caliphate. The reliance on agriculture led to land exhaustion and a decline in agricultural productivity. Additionally, the caliphate faced financial strain due to lavish court expenditures, military expenses, and the cost of maintaining a vast empire. This, coupled with corruption and mismanagement, contributed to economic instability. Decline of Trade: The decline of trade routes and the emergence of alternative trade routes bypassing the Abbasid Caliphate affected its economic prosperity. Political instability, conflicts, and the rise of regional powers disrupted the traditional trade networks, diminishing the wealth and influence of the caliphate. Mongol Invasions: The Mongol invasions in the 13th century dealt a severe blow to the Abbasid Caliphate. The Mongols, under the leadership of Genghis Khan and later his descendants, captured and sacked Baghdad, the Abbasid capital, in 1258. This event marked the end of the Abbasid Caliphate as a major political force, although some Abbasid branches continued to exist in Egypt and other regions. Cultural and Intellectual Stagnation: The Abbasid Caliphate, known for its golden age of learning and intellectual advancements, experienced a decline in intellectual pursuits. The caliphate's focus shifted from scholarship and scientific advancements to political and military concerns. This shift contributed to a stagnation of intellectual and cultural development. Overview: Establishment: The Abbasid Caliphate was established in 750 CE, following the overthrow of the Umayyad Caliphate. The Abbasids claimed descent from Abbas ibn Abdul-Muttalib, an uncle of the Prophet Muhammad. 58 Golden Age: The Abbasid Caliphate is often associated with a golden age of Islamic civilization, particularly during the 8th to 10th centuries. This period witnessed significant advancements in various fields such as science, mathematics, philosophy, literature, and art. Baghdad: The capital of the Abbasid Caliphate was Baghdad, which became a center of cultural, intellectual, and economic activity. The city flourished with libraries, academies, and bustling marketplaces, attracting scholars and traders from different parts of the world. Arab-Persian Culture: The Abbasid Caliphate marked a shift toward a more inclusive Arab-Persian cultural synthesis. Persian influences became prominent, impacting language, literature, and administration, while Arabic remained the language of the state and religion. Islamic Law and Administration: The Abbasids developed a sophisticated system of Islamic law and established institutions to administer justice. Legal scholars, known as jurists, interpreted and applied Islamic law, contributing to the development of legal principles and schools of thought. Trade and Commerce: The Abbasid Caliphate fostered extensive trade networks, connecting the Mediterranean, the Indian Ocean, and Central Asia. Cities such as Baghdad and Basra became important commercial hubs, facilitating the exchange of goods, ideas, and cultures. Translations and Preservation of Knowledge: The Abbasids played a vital role in the translation and preservation of ancient Greek, Persian, and Indian texts. Scholars translated works from various languages into Arabic, preserving and transmitting knowledge to future generations. Sejuluk Turks & The Mamluks & Other Empires who had a Negative Impact on the Abbasid Caliphate: → Seljuk Turks: Rise to Power: The Seljuk Turks, a Central Asian Turkic people, migrated westward and established their dominance in Persia during the 11th century. Battle of Manzikert: In 1071, the Seljuks decisively defeated the Byzantine Empire at the Battle of Manzikert, gaining control over Anatolia (modern-day Turkey) and expanding their influence. Invasion of the Abbasid Caliphate: The Seljuks later turned their attention to the Abbasid Caliphate, capturing Baghdad in 1055 and taking control of the caliphate's territories. However, they initially respected the religious and cultural authority of the Abbasid caliphs. Political Influence: While the Abbasid caliphs remained as religious figureheads, real political power shifted to the Seljuk sultans, who ruled as military leaders. The caliphs became largely dependent on the Seljuks for protection and faced limitations on their authority. 59 Internal Conflicts: The Seljuk rule over the Abbasid Caliphate coincided with internal conflicts and rivalries among various factions, including Shiite and Sunni sects, which further weakened the caliphate's stability. Mongol Conquests: Mamluks: Origin: The Seljuk Turks themselves faced significant challenges from the Mongols, who invaded their territories and eventually overthrew their empire. This further disrupted the political landscape and contributed to the decline of the Abbasid Caliphate. The Mamluks were originally enslaved soldiers who were predominantly of Turkic, Circassian, and Caucasian origin. They were often purchased or captured as slaves and trained as elite warriors in Egypt and Syria. Overthrow of the Ayyubids: The Mamluks rose to prominence during the late 12th century and early 13th century. They successfully overthrew the Ayyubid dynasty, which had ruled over Egypt and Syria. Control over the Levant: The Mamluks established the Mamluk Sultanate, centered in Cairo, Egypt, and extended their rule over a vast region that included Syria, Palestine, and parts of Iraq. This encroached on the territories traditionally associated with the Abbasid Caliphate. Conflict with the Abbasid Caliphate: The Mamluks exerted influence over the Abbasid Caliphate and often installed and deposed caliphs based on their own interests. They manipulated the caliphs as figureheads, reducing their authority to a symbolic role. Mongol Threat and Collaboration: The Mamluks played a crucial role in halting the Mongol invasion of the region. They decisively defeated the Mongols at the Battle of Ain Jalut in 1260, preventing further Mongol conquests. This victory preserved the Mamluk Sultanate but further weakened the Abbasid Caliphate. Buyid Dynasty (945-1055): Rise to Power: The Buyids were a Persian Shia dynasty that emerged in the 10th century. They initially recognized Abbasid caliphs as their overlords but gradually gained control over Iraq and western Iran. Political Control: The Buyids significantly weakened the central authority of the Abbasid Caliphate. While they allowed the caliphs to retain their religious authority, the Buyids controlled the political and administrative affairs of the caliphate. Sectarian Tensions: The Buyids' Shia identity clashed with the predominantly Sunni Abbasid caliphs, leading to sectarian tensions and conflicts within the empire. Mongol Empire (1206-1368): Conquests: The Mongols, led by Genghis Khan and his successors, embarked on a series of conquests across Asia, including the lands of the Abbasid Caliphate. 60 Invasion of Baghdad: In 1258, the Mongols under Hulagu Khan sacked Baghdad, ending the Abbasid Caliphate's political and military power. The destruction of the city and the killing of the caliph marked a significant blow to the caliphate's authority and centralized control. Subsequent Rule: While the Mongols allowed some Abbasid branches to continue as religious figureheads, the caliphate lost its political and territorial significance. Mongol rulers established their own administrative systems and ruled over the conquered lands. Timurid Empire (1370-1507): Timur's Conquests: Timur (Tamerlane), a Turkic-Mongol conqueror, established the Timurid Empire and embarked on a series of conquests in the late 14th and early 15th centuries. Destruction of Baghdad: In 1401, Timur invaded and sacked Baghdad, causing widespread devastation and further weakening the Abbasid Caliphate. Fragmentation and Instability: The Timurid Empire contributed to the fragmentation and instability of the Abbasid Caliphate, as various Timurid successors and local rulers asserted control over different regions. 61 Origins and Rise: Nomadic Heritage: The Mongols originated from the Central Asian steppe, known as Mongolia, in the 13th century. They were a confederation of tribes led by charismatic leaders. Leadership of Genghis Khan: Genghis Khan, born as Temujin, emerged as the paramount leader of the Mongols in 1206. He united the disparate Mongol tribes through military conquests, diplomacy, and a code of laws known as the Yassa. Military Tactics: The Mongols were renowned for their exceptional horsemanship and mastery of mounted archery. Their military strategies, including the use of skilled cavalry, rapid mobility, and psychological warfare, made them formidable opponents. Mongol Conquests: < MONGOLS > Expansion under Genghis Khan: Genghis Khan embarked on a series of military campaigns, conquering vast territories in Central Asia, China, and parts of the Middle East. His empire stretched from the Pacific Ocean to the Caspian Sea. Subsequent Leaders: After Genghis Khan's death in 1227, his empire was divided among his sons and grandsons. They continued the expansion, with notable leaders including Ögedei Khan, Güyük Khan, and Mongke Khan. Conquests in China: The Mongols established the Yuan Dynasty in China under Kublai Khan, who completed the conquest of the Song Dynasty in 1279. The Yuan Dynasty ruled over China for nearly a century. Conquests in the Middle East: The Mongols, led by Hulagu Khan, invaded the Middle East and conquered major Islamic states, including the Abbasid Caliphate and the Ayyubid Sultanate of Egypt. Baghdad was sacked in 1258, marking a significant event in the decline of the Abbasid Caliphate. Mongol Empire and Administration: Administration and Governance: The Mongol Empire was characterized by a decentralized and flexible administration. Local administrators, often native to the conquered regions, were appointed to govern, while Mongol nobility held higher positions. Religious Tolerance: The Mongols generally adopted a policy of religious tolerance, allowing the free practice of various religions within their empire. They patronized and sought guidance from different religious leaders. Pax Mongolica: The Mongol Empire facilitated increased trade and cultural exchange across Eurasia. The network of safe trade routes, known as the Silk Road, experienced a period of stability and prosperity during the Mongol rule, referred to as the Pax Mongolica. Legacy and Decline: Cultural Exchange: Mongol rule brought about cultural exchange between the East and West, with the transmission of ideas, technologies, and goods across their vast empire. 62 Decline of the Empire: Internal conflicts, succession disputes, and external pressures contributed to the fragmentation and decline of the Mongol Empire. By the late 14th century, the empire had splintered into several separate khanates, such as the Golden Horde, the Ilkhanate, and the Chagatai Khanate. Influence on Successor States: The Mongol Empire's collapse led to the rise of successor states in different regions, such as the Timurid Empire in Central Asia and the Ming Dynasty in China. The Mongols left a profound impact on the regions they conquered, reshaping political, social, and cultural landscapes. Despite the empire's decline, their legacy in terms of trade, diplomacy, administration, and military tactics continued to influence subsequent empires and civilizations. Some key points regarding the Mongols include: Trade and Communication: The Mongol Empire facilitated the exchange of goods, ideas, and technologies across vast territories. The Silk Road flourished under Mongol rule, connecting East Asia, Central Asia, the Middle East, and Europe. Cultural and Scientific Exchange: Mongol rulers patronized scholars, artists, and architects from diverse backgrounds, leading to cultural exchanges and the blending of artistic styles and intellectual traditions. Impact on China: The Yuan Dynasty, established by Kublai Khan, left a lasting impact on China. The Mongols introduced policies such as unified legal codes, standardized currency, and improved transportation infrastructure. Impact on Russia: The Mongols established the Golden Horde in Russia, which exerted control over the region for centuries. Russian princes paid tribute to the Mongols and adopted aspects of Mongol administration and military tactics. Mongol Rule in Persia: The Ilkhanate, a state in Persia, witnessed a blendi of Mong and Persian cultures. Persian administrators and scholars played significant roles in governance and cultural developments. Influence on Successor States: The fragmentation of the Mongol Empire led to the emergence of successor states, such as the Timurid Empire in Central Asia and the Mughal Empire in India, which adopted Mongol administrative systems and military strategies. 63 Rise of the Ottoman Empire: Origins: The Ottoman Empire was founded by Osman I in 1299 in Anatolia (modern-day Turkey). Osman and his descendants gradually expanded their territory through military campaigns and alliances. Conquest of Constantinople: The Ottomans achieved a significant milestone in 1453 when Sultan Mehmed II conquered Constantinople (present-day Istanbul), effectively ending the Byzantine Empire. < THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE > Expansion into Europe: Following the conquest of Constantinople, the Ottomans expanded their empire into the Balkans, capturing territories previously held by Byzantium, Serbia, and Bulgaria. Golden Age and Expansion: Reign of Suleiman the Magnificent: Suleiman I, also known as Suleiman the Magnificent, ruled from 1520 to 1566 and presided over the Ottoman Empire's golden age. Under his leadership, the empire reached its greatest territorial extent, stretching across three continents: Europe, Asia, and Africa. Conquests and Siege of Vienna: The Ottomans launched numerous military campaigns, expanding their control over much of southeastern Europe, North Africa, and the Middle East. Their advance into Central Europe was halted by the unsuccessful Siege of Vienna in 1529 and subsequent defeats in the Great Turkish War in the late 17th century. Administrative and Legal System: Centralized Administration: The Ottoman Empire employed a centralized administration, with power concentrated in the sultan and his advisors. Administrative divisions called provinces (eyalets) were ruled by governors (pashas) appointed by the sultan. Millet System: The empire practiced religious tolerance through the millet system. Different religious and ethnic communities (such as Muslims, Christians, and Jews) were granted a degree of autonomy in their own affairs, governed by their respective religious leaders. Legal Code: The empire developed a comprehensive legal system known as the Ottoman law, influenced by Islamic law (Sharia) and Roman law. The legal code was based on a hierarchical structure and covered civil, criminal, and administrative matters. Cultural and Intellectual Achievements: Ottoman Architecture: The empire left a lasting architectural legacy, with iconic structures such as the Hagia Sophia, Topkapi Palace, and Süleymaniye Mosque. Ottoman architecture combined elements of Islamic, Byzantine, and Persian styles. Literature and Poetry: Ottoman literature flourished, with notable poets such as Mehmed the Conqueror and Süleyman the Magnificent. The empire also produced prominent scholars, philosophers, and historians. Art and Calligraphy: Ottoman art encompassed various forms, including miniature painting, ceramics, textiles, and intricate calligraphy. 64 Decline and Dissolution: Military and Technological Challenges: The Ottoman Empire faced military and technological challenges as European powers advanced with innovations such as gunpowder and naval superiority. Loss of Territories: The empire began to lose territories in the 17th and 18th centuries. The Treaty of Karlowitz (1699) marked a significant turning point, resulting in territorial losses in Central Europe. Reforms and Tanzimat Era: The empire initiated reform efforts known as the Tanzimat era in the 19th century. These reforms aimed to modernize the state, including administrative, legal, and educational reforms. Nationalist Movements and World War I: The empire faced growing nationalist movements among its diverse ethnic and religious groups, leading to further territorial losses. World War I and End of the Empire: The toman Empire joined World War I on the side of the Central Po leading to a series of military defeats and the disintegration of the empire. The empire was partitioned by the victorious Allied powers through various treaties, including the Treaty of Sèvres (1920) and later the Treaty of Lausanne (1923). Turkish War of Independence: Following the defeat in World War I, Turkish nationalist movements led by Mustafa Kemal (later known as Atatürk) emerged, seeking to establish a modern Turkish state. The Turkish War of Independence (1919-1922) resulted in the establishment of the Republic of Turkey in 1923, effectively ending the Ottoman Empire. Legacy of the Ottoman Empire: The Ottoman Empire's legacy is significant and far-reaching: Cultural Influence: The empire left an indelible cultural imprint across various regions, including architecture, arts, music, and cuisine. The influence of Ottoman culture can still be observed in modern-day Turkey and other successor states. Legal Reforms: The Ottoman legal system influenced subsequent legal codes in many regi it once ruled, particularly in matters related to family law and personal status. Geopolitical Impact: The empire's demise and the redrawing of borders in the Middle East during the 20th century had far-reaching geopolitical consequences, shaping the region's political landscape to this day. 65 Roman Catholicism: Roman Catholicism is the largest Christian sect and is centered around the authority of the Pope in Rome. It traces its origins back to the apostle Peter and emphasizes sacraments, papal authority, and the veneration of saints. Eastern Orthodoxy: Eastern Orthodoxy is the second-largest Christian denomination and is prevalent in Eastern Europe, Russia, and the Middle East. It split from Roman Catholicism in the 11th century over theological and cultural differences. It places a strong emphasis on liturgy, icons, and the authority of the bishops. Protestantism: <DIFFERENT SECTS OF CHRISTIANITY > Protestantism encompasses various Christian denominations that originated during the Protestant Reformation in the 16th century. Some major branches of Protestantism include: → a. Lutheranism: Founded by Martin Luther, Lutheranism emphasizes the doctrine of justification by faith alone and rejects the authority of the Pope. → b. Anglicanism: → d. Baptist: Originating in England, Anglicanism is the main religious tradition in the Anglican Communion. It combines elements of Catholicism and Protestantism and has its own hierarchy with the Archbishop of Canterbury as its spiritual head. → c. Calvinism/Reformed: Associated with the teachings of John Calvin, Reformed churches emphasize the sovereignty of God, predestination, and the authority of Scripture. Baptists believe in the baptism of believers, reject infant baptism, and emphasize the autonomy of local churches. → e. Methodism: Founded by John Wesley, Methodism places an emphasis on personal piety, social justice, and the role of the Holy Spirit in individual corporate life. →f. Pentecostalism: Pentecostalism is characterized by its belief in the baptism of the Holy Spirit and the practice of speaking in tongues. It emphasizes spiritual gifts, divine healing, and a personal experience of God's presence. Oriental Orthodoxy: Oriental Orthodoxy comprises several churches, including the Coptic Orthodox Church of Egypt, the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church, and the Armenian Apostolic Church. These churches split from the rest of Christianity in the 5th century over the nature of Christ. Assyrian Church of the East: Also known as the Nestorian Church, it originated in the Persian Empire and has its roots in the teachings of Nestorius. It spread across Asia and was influential in regions such as China and India. 66 Latter-Day Saints (Mormonism): Founded by Joseph Smith in the early 19th century, Mormonism believes in additional scriptures such as the Book of Mormon. It teaches that Jesus appeared to Native Americans and emphasizes family values. 67 < THE COLD WAR > The Cold War was a geopolitical and ideological conflict that lasted from the late 1940s to the early 1990s. It emerged after World War II as a rivalry between the United States and the Soviet Union, the two superpowers that emerged from the war. Although direct military confrontation was largely avoided, the Cold War was characterized by political, economic, and ideological competition, as well as proxy wars, arms races, and a global division into two opposing blocs. Here is a detailed overview of the Cold War: Origins and Early Tensions: World War II and Yalta Conference: The defeat of Nazi Germany and its Axis allies led to the emergence of the United States and the Soviet Union as global superpowers. The Yalta Conference in 1945 established the division of post-war Europe into spheres of influence, but tensions began to rise soon after. Ideological Differences: The United States promoted liberal democracy and capitalism, while the Soviet Union embraced communism and sought to spread it worldwide. The clash of these competing ideologies formed the basis for the Cold War. Key Events and Conflicts: Truman Doctrine and Containment: In 1947, U.S. President Harry Truman declared the policy of containment, aiming to prevent the spread of communism. This led to U.S. interventions in Greece, Turkey, and later the Korean War (1950-1953) and the Vietnam War (1955-1975). Berlin Blockade and Airlift: In 1948, the Soviet Union blockaded West Berlin, leading to a massive airlift by the United States and its allies to supply the city and maintain its freedom. Cuban Missile Crisis: In 1962, the world came close to nuclear war when the United States discovered Soviet missiles in Cuba. The crisis was diffused through negotiations between the two superpowers. Proxy Wars: The Cold War was marked by proxy conflicts where the United States and the Soviet Union supported opposing sides in various conflicts, including the Korean War, Vietnam War, Afghanistan War, and numerous others in Africa, Asia, and Latin America. Arms Race and Détente: Nuclear Arms Race: Both the United States and the Soviet Union engaged in an arms race, developing and stockpiling nuclear weapons, leading to a climate of mutual deterrence known as "Mutually Assured Destruction" (MAD). Détente: In the 1970s, there was a period of détente, characterized by reduced tensions and increased dialogue between the superpowers. This led to agreements such as the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT) and the Helsinki Accords. 68 Collapse of the Soviet Union and End of the Cold War: Soviet Economic Decline: The Soviet Union faced economic stagnation and internal challenges, which intensified in the 1980s under Mikhail Gorbachev's leadership. Gorbachev introduced reforms like perestroika (economic restructuring) and glasnost (political openness). Eastern European Revolutions: In the late 1980s, popular movements in Eastern European countries, such as Poland, Hungary, and East Germany, led to the overthrow of communist regimes and the collapse of the Iron Curtain. Dissolution of the Soviet Union: In 1991, the Soviet Union dissolved into independent nations, marking the end of the Cold War and the bipolar world order. Impact and Legacy: Global Division and Alliances: The Cold War led to the division of the world into two major blocs-the capitalist Western bloc led by the United States and the communist Eastern bloc led by the Soviet Union. This division shaped global politics, alliances, and conflicts for several decades. Nuclear Proliferation: The Cold War arms race resulted in the proliferation of nuclear weapons, increasing the risk of global catastrophe. The threat of nuclear war shaped international relations and led to efforts to prevent the spread of nuclear weapons. Space Race and Technological Advancements: The competition between the United States and the Soviet Union during the Cold War fueled advancements in science, technology, and space exploration, including the moon landing in 1969. Decolonization and Cold War Influence: The Cold War influenced decolonization movements in Africa, Asia, and the Middle East, as the superpowers sought to gain influence and allies in the newly independent nations. Legacy of Tensions: The legacy of the Cold War continues to shape global politics, with ongoing tensions between major powers, such as the United States, Russia, and China. The threat of nuclear weapons and ideological rivalries persist to this day. Cultural and Social Impact: Proxy Cultural Conflicts: The Cold War was accompanied by cultural conflicts, as the United States and the Soviet Union sought to promote their respective ideologies through art, literature, music, and popular culture. Fear and Suspicion: The Cold War fostered an atmosphere of fear, suspicion, and paranoia, particularly through government surveillance and McCarthyism in the United States. 69 Sports and Diplomacy: The superpower rivalry extended to the realm of sports, with events like the Olympics serving as platforms for diplomatic exchanges and showcasing the ideological superiority of one side over the other. It is important to note that the Cold War had complex and varied effects in different regions of the world. While Europe and the United States experienced relative stability and economic prosperity, many countries in Asia, Africa, and Latin America were deeply affected by the superpower competition, proxy wars, and covert interventions. The end of the Cold War marked a significant shift in global geopolitics but left lasting legacies that continue to shape the world today. 70 < RECONNAISSANCE, FACISM, AND OTHER IMPORTANT CONCEPTS I FORGET TOO MUCH > → The Renaissance was a period of cultural, intellectual, and artistic rebirth that spanned roughly from the 14th to the 17th century in Europe. It marked a transition from the Middle Ages to the early modern era and was characterized by a renewed interest in ancient Greek and Roman texts, as well as a focus on humanism, individualism, and scientific inquiry. The Renaissance had a profound impact on various aspects of society, including art, literature, philosophy, politics, and science. Historical Context: The Renaissance emerged in Italy during the 14th century and gradually spread throughout Europe. Italy was an ideal breeding ground for the Renaissance due to its urban centers, wealth from trade, and a strong connection to ancient Roman culture. Humanism: Humanism was a key intellectual movement during the Renaissance that emphasized the potential and achievements of human beings. Humanists focused on individual worth, human capabilities, and the importance of education in developing well-rounded individuals. They sought inspiration from classical texts and valued the study of literature, philosophy, history, and ethics. Art and Architecture: Renaissance art broke away from the stylized and symbolic works of the Middle Ages, embracing naturalism and portraying the human form in a realistic manner. Artists like Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, and Raphael created masterpieces that showcased technical skill, perspective, and emotional depth. Renaissance architecture revived the classical principles of ancient Greece and Rome, characterized by harmonious proportions, symmetry, and the use of columns and domes. Literature and Philosophy: Renaissance writers drew inspiration from classical works and sought to revive ancient literary forms such as epic poems, sonnets, and dialogues. Prominent authors include Dante Alighieri, Petrarch, and Giovanni Boccaccio in Italy, and William Shakespeare and Christopher Marlowe in England. Renaissance philosophy emphasized human reason, empirical observation, and the potential for human progress. Scholars like Niccolò Machiavelli and Thomas More made significant contributions. Scientific Advancements: The Renaissance witnessed a shift towards scientific inquiry and a break from medieval reliance on religious dogma. Nicolaus Copernicus proposed a heliocentric model of the solar system, challenging the geocentric view held for centuries. Galileo Galilei conducted experiments and observations that supported Copernicus' theory, leading to conflicts with the Catholic Church. Spread and Legacy: The Renaissance spread to other parts of Europe, with distinct variations in different regions. 71 The printing press, invented by Johannes Gutenberg, facilitated the dissemination of knowledge and contributed to the spread of Renaissance ideas. The Renaissance had a lasting impact on Western civilization, shaping the subsequent development of art, science, literature, and philosophy. It laid the groundwork for the Enlightenment and the modern era. Overall, the Renaissance was a transformative period that celebrated the achievements of the individual, revived classical learning, and paved the way for the profound changes that would shape the world in the centuries to come. → Feudalism was a socio-economic and political system that dominated medieval Europe from the 9th to the 15th century. It was characterized by a hierarchical structure of land ownership and obligations between lords and vassals. Feudalism played a crucial role in shaping the social, economic, and political landscape of the Middle Ages. Origins and Structure: Feudalism emerged in the aftermath of the collapse of the Carolingian Empire in Western Europe. Under feudalism, a lord (often a monarch or a powerful noble) granted land (fief) to a vassal in exchange for military service, economic support, or other forms of loyalty. Vassals could subdivide their land among their own vassals, creating a complex system of overlapping feudal relationships. Feudal Hierarchy: At the top of the feudal hierarchy was the monarch, who granted large tracts of land to nobles and bishops in exchange for their loyalty and military service. Nobles, also known as lords or landowners, were responsible for governing their territories and providing protection to their subjects. Knights, who were typically vassals of the nobles, served as heavily armed cavalry and provided military service. Peasants, or serfs, formed the majority of the population and worked the land in exchange for protection and the right to cultivate a portion of the land for themselves. Land Tenure and Obligations: The central aspect of feudalism was the exchange of land for service and obligations. Lords granted fiefs to vassals, who then owed certain duties to their lords, such as military service, financial payments (feudal dues), and advice. Vassals were expected to provide military support to their lords when called upon and to attend the lord's court and council. Manorialism and Agricultural Economy: Feudalism was closely intertwined with manorialism, an economic system in which the manor was the primary unit of production and self-sufficiency. The manor consisted of the lord's estate, peasant villages, and the surrounding land. Peasants, as serfs, were bound to the land and obligated to work for the lord, providing labor, crops, and other resources in exchange for protection and the right to cultivate their own plots. Feudal Justice and Customary Law: Feudal justice was decentralized and based on customary law, varying across regions and lords. 72 Lords acted as judges and administered justice within their territories, often with the assistance of local nobles or officials. Disputes were resolved through trial by combat, trial by ordeal, or other traditional methods. Decline and Legacy: Feudalism began to decline around the 14th century due to various factors, including the growth of centralized monarchies, the rise of cities and merchant classes, and societal changes brought about by the Black Death. The rise of nation-states and the transition to more centralized systems of governance gradually replaced feudalism. Feudalism left a lasting impact on European society, influencing concepts of land ownership, social hierarchy, and the relationship between rulers and subjects. → Serfdom was a system of labor obligations and social status that prevailed during the medieval period in Europe. It was closely con ected to feudalism and characterized by a hierarchical relationship between landowners (lords) and the peasant class (serfs). Serfdom entailed various forms of unfree labor and limited personal freedom for serfs. Definition and Status: Serfdom defined the legal and social status of serfs, who were peasants bound to the land they worked and subject to the authority of their lord. Serfs were considered unfree individuals who were not outright slaves but were tied to the land and obligated to provide labor, goods, and services to the lord. Land Tenure and Obligations: Serfs lived and worked on the lord's estate, which was often organized as a manor. Serfs were assigned plots of land to cultivate for their subsistence but were required to give a portion of their crops or other produce to the lord as rent or taxes. In addition to agricultural labor, serfs might be obligated to perform other tasks, such as maintaining roads, repairing buildings, or working in the lord's household. Lack of Mobility and Freedom: Serfs were bound to the land and were not allowed to leave the manor without the lord's permission. The lord had the power to sell, buy, or transfer serfs along with the land, effectively limiting their freedom to move or change their social status. Serfs were also subject to the jurisdiction of the lord's court and were unable to seek justice or protection elsewhere. Limited Social Mobility: Serfdom was generally hereditary, meaning that children born to serfs were also considered serfs, perpetuating their social status across generations. Social mobility for serfs was severely restricted, and opportunities for upward mobility were rare. However, in some cases, serfs could gain their freedom through various means, such as serving in the lord's army, acquiring enough wealth to buy their freedom, or being released by a benevolent lord. 73 Relationship with Feudalism: Serfdom was closely connected to the feudal system, as serfs were the laboring class that supported the economic and agricultural needs of the lords. The lord provided protection and the right to cultivate land in exchange for the serfs' labor and various obligations. Decline and Abolition: Serfdom started to decline in Western Europe from the 14th century onwards, driven by societal changes, the growth of cities and urbanization, and shifts in economic structures. The Black Death also contributed to the weakening of serfdom by reducing the available labor force and giving serfs more leverage in negotiating improved conditions. Serfdom was gradually replaced by other labor arrangements, such as wage labor and tenant farming, as well as by legal reforms and social changes that granted more rights and freedom to peasants. Mercantilism was an economic system that dominated European economic thought and practice from the 16th to the 18th century. It emphasized national wealth and power through the accumulation of precious metals, a favorable balance of trade, and government intervention in the economy. Mercantilism aimed to strengthen a nation's economy and increase its influence in the global arena. Accumulation of Wealth: Mercantilism placed great importance on accumulating precious metals, particularly gold and silver, as a measure of a nation's wealth. Governments sought to achieve a positive balance of trade by exporting more goods than importing, thereby acquiring more bullion. Protectionist Policies: Mercantilist governments implemented various protectionist measures to support domestic industries and promote exports. Tariffs, quotas, and other trade restrictions were imposed to limit imports and protect domestic production. Colonial powers often established exclusive trade agreements and monopol to control and exploi the resources of their colonies. State Intervention and Regulation: Governments actively intervened in economic affairs to promote national interests. They provided subsidies, grants, and other forms of financial support to industries considered strategically important. Regulations were enacted to ensure quality standards, control prices, and maintain a favorable balance of trade. Colonization and Exploitation: Mercantilist powers established colonies as sources of raw materials and captive markets for their manufactured goods. Colonies were often restricted from trading with other nations, ensuring a steady flow of resources and profits back to the colonial power. 74 Economic Self-Sufficiency: Mercantilism aimed to achieve economic self-sufficiency by promoting domestic production and reducing dependence on foreign imports. Governments encouraged the development of industries, infrastructure, and skilled labor to meet domestic needs. Criticisms and Transition: Over time, mercantilism faced criticism from economists such as Adam Smith, who argued for free trade and market-oriented policies. The Industrial Revolution and advancements in transportation and technology challenged the traditional mercantilist practices and led to the emergence of new economic theories. Legacy and Impact: Mercantilism had a significant impact on the economic policies of European nations during the age of exploration and colonialism. It contributed to the rise of powerful nation-states and the formation of global trading networks. The accumulation of wealth and resources through mercantilist practices laid the foundation for the subsequent industrialization and capitalist development of Europe. → Diasporic communities refer to groups of people who have migrated or been dispersed from their ancestral or home regions and have settled in different parts of the world. These communities typically maintain a collective identity, cultural connections, and networks that transcend their new geographic locations. Diasporas can be formed due to various reasons, including voluntary migration, forced displacement, economic opportunities, or political instability. Characteristics of Diasporic Communities: Shared Identity: Diasporic communities often maintain a strong sense of shared identity based on their common heritage, language, religion, or cultural practices. Transnational Networks: They establish and maintain social, economic, and cultural connections across different geographic locations, forming transnational networks. Cultural Preservation: Diasporas actively preserve and transmit their cultural traditions, including language, cuisine, music, dance, and religious practices, often fostering a sense of continuity with their ancestral homeland. Dual Belonging: Diasporic individuals often experience a dual sense of belonging, having attachments both to their new host country and their ancestral homeland. Historical Examples: Jewish Diaspora: The Jewish people have experienced multiple diasporas throughout history, including the Babylonian Exile, the Roman dispersion, and the Holocaust, resulting in Jewish communities forming in various parts of the world. 75 African Diaspora: The African Diaspora resulted from the transatlantic slave trade, dispersing African peoples to the Americas, Europe, and other regions. This diaspora has had a profound impact on culture, music, art, and social movements. Indian Diaspora: The Indian Diaspora is spread across the globe, resulting from historical migration, including the indentured labor system, economic opportunities, and post-colonial movements. Indian diasporic communities have maintained cultural ties and contributed to their host countries' social, economic, and political landscapes. Cultural and Economic Contributions: Diasporic communities often make significant cultural, intellectual, and economic contributions to both their host countries and their ancestral homelands. Cultural Exchange: They enrich the cultural diversity of their new societies, introducing new traditions, art forms, languages, and culinary practices. Remittances: Diasporas contribute to their home countries' economies through remittances, sending money back to support their families and invest in local businesses and development projects. Trade and Business Networks: Diasporas often establish trade networks and business connections that promote economic cooperation between their host countries and their ancestral lands. Challenges and Identity Issues: Diasporic communities face challenges related to maintaining their cultural heritage, assimilation pressures, discrimination, and negotiating their dual identities. Identity Negotiation: Diasporic individuals often navigate between their ancestral culture and the dominant culture of their host country, creating complex identity dynamics. Cultural Preservation: Diasporas may face the challenge of preserving their cultural traditions and language across generations while adapting to new cultural contexts. Connectivity and Advocacy: Advances in transportation, communication, and digital technology have facilitated increased connectivity among diasporic communities, enabling cultural exchange, support networks, and advocacy efforts. Diaspora organizations and associations play a crucial role in representing the interests of their communities, advocating for their rights, and maintaining ties with their ancestral homelands. Diasporic communities contribute to the rich tapestry of global culture, serving as bridges between different regions and fostering a sense of global interconnectedness. They embody the resilience, adaptability, and cultural diversity of human societies. 76 → The North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) was a trade agreement signed in 1994 between the United States, Canada, and Mexico. It aimed to create a trilateral free trade zone in North America by reducing trade barriers, promoting economic integration, and enhancing cooperation between the three countries. NAFTA was a landmark agreement that had a significant impact on the economies and trade relations of the participating nations. Objectives: Elimination of Tariffs: NAFTA sought to gradually eliminate tariffs and other trade barriers on goods and services among the member countries. Market Access: The agreement aimed to provide improved market access for businesses by reducing restrictions on investments and trade. Intellectual Property Rights: NAFTA included provisions to protect intellectual property rights, encouraging innovation and technology transfer. Dispute Resolution: It established mechanisms for resolving trade disputes between the member countries, promoting fair trade practices. Key Provisions: Tariff Elimination: NAFTA phased out most tariffs on traded goods among the member countries over a period of 15 years. Rules of Origin: The agreement established rules to determine the origin of goods, ensuring that preferential tariff treatment was granted to goods produced within the NAFTA region. Services and Investment: NAFTA facilitated trade in services and promoted investment by reducing barriers and providi legal protections for investors. Intellectual Property: The agreement strengthened intellectual property rights protection, including patents, copyrights, and trademarks. Agriculture: NAFTA addressed agricultural trade by removing or reducing barriers and establishing mechanisms for dispute resolution related to agricultural trade. Economic Impact: Increased Trade: NAFTA significantly increased trade among the member countries. Total trilateral merchandise trade more than tripled since its implementation. Foreign Direct Investment (FDI): NAFTA led to increased cross-border investment and integration of supply chains, attracting FDI flows into North America. 77 Industry Competitiveness: It facilitated specialization and enhanced competitiveness in various industries, such as automotive, agriculture, and manufacturing. Job Creation: NAFTA contributed to job creation and economic growth in the participating countries, although the effects varied across sectors and regions. Challenges and Displacements: The agreement also faced criticism for contributing to job losses in some sectors and negatively impacting certain industries, particularly in labor-intensive manufacturing. Renegotiation and USMCA: In 2017, negotiations for a modernized version of NAFTA began at the request of the United States. The result was the United States-Mexico-Canada Agreement (USMCA), which was signed in 2018 and entered into force in 2020. The USMCA updated several provisions related to labor, environment, digital trade, intellectual property, and the automotive industry, among others, while maintaining the overall framework of NAFTA. NAFTA and its successor, the USMCA, have played a significant role in shaping the economic relations between the United States, Canada, and Mexico. They have fostered increased integration, trade, and investment in the region while also raising debates and discussions regarding the benefits, costs, and potential implications of free trade agreements. → Nationalism is an ideology and political movement that places emphasis on the interests, culture, and identity of a particular nation or group of people. It is characterized by a strong sense of loyalty, pride, and devotion to one's nation and often seeks to promote its unity, sovereignty, and well-being. Nationalism can manifest in various forms and has played a significant role in shaping history, politics, and international relations. Definition and Key Elements: National Identity: Nationalism emphasizes the shared identity, culture, history, language, and traditions of a specific nation or ethnic group. Sovereignty and Self-Determination: Nationalism asserts the right of a nation to govern itself, determine its own destiny, and exercise political autonomy. Loyalty and Patriotism: Nationalism fosters a strong sense of loyalty, attachment, and love for one's nation, often expressed through symbols, rituals, and national pride. Unity and Solidarity: Nationalism seeks to promote a sense of unity, social cohesion, and collective action among members of a nation. Differentiation and Exclusivity: Nationalism often highlights the distinctiveness and uniqueness of a nation, setting it apart from other groups or nations. 78 Historical Development: Enlightenment and Romanticism: Nationalism emerged as a significant political force in the 18th and 19th centuries, influenced by Enlightenment ideas and the Romantic movement that emphasized cultural and linguistic identities. Rise of Nation-States: Nationalism played a crucial role in the formation of nation-states, such as Italy and Germany, through movements seeking political independence and unification based on shared cultural and historical identities. Decolonization: - Nationalism was instrumental in anti-colonial movements, as colonized peoples sought self-determination, independence, and the establishment of their own nation-states. Forms of Nationalism: Civic Nationalism: Emphasizes shared values, political ideals, and citizenship as the basis for national identity, allowing for inclusivity and integration of diverse populations. Ethnic Nationalism: Emphasizes shared ancestry, language, culture, and ethnic heritage as the defining factors of national identity, often leading to exclusionary tendencies. Positive Aspects and Functions: Self-Determination and Autonomy: Nationalism provides a framework for asserting and protecting the rights of a nation to govern itself and determine its political, social, and economic systems. Nation-Building: Nationalism can contribute to the creation of a shared national identity, fostering social cohesion, and promoting unity among diverse groups. Mobilization and Collective Action: Nationalism has been a powerful force in mobilizing populations for social and political movements, including struggles for independence, democracy, and social justice. Criticisms and Challenges: Ethnocentrism and Exclusion: Nationalism can sometimes foster exclusionary attitudes, ethnic or religious tensions, and conflicts based on the perception of "us" versus "them." Suppression of Minority Rights: Minority groups within a nation may face challenges in maintaining their cultural, linguistic, and political rights in the face of dominant nationalist ideologies. Nationalism and Global Cooperation: The emphasis on national interests can sometimes hinder international cooperation and foster rivalries between nations. 79 Modern Nationalism: Contemporary nationalism takes various forms, from populist and nativist movements to secessionist movements, regional nationalism, and ethnonationalism. Globalization and Nationalism: Some argue that globalization has led to a resurgence of nationalism as individuals and groups seek to protect their cultural identity and economic interests in the face of perceived threats. Nationalism continues to be a powerful force in shaping political landscapes and identities around the world. It can unite people around shared values and aspirations but it can also give rise to tensions, conflicts, and challenges in an increasingly interconnected and interdependent world. Nationalism and Global Challenges: Globalization and Identity: As globalization accelerates cultural exchange and challenges traditional boundaries, nationalism often arises as a response to preserve and assert distinct cultural identities in the face of perceived homogenization. Nationalism and Supranational Institutions: The rise of nationalist sentiments has sometimes led to tensions between national sovereignty and the integration efforts of supranational institutions, such as the European Union. The balance between national autonomy and regional cooperation remains a key debate. Nationalism and Multiculturalism: Managing diversity within nations can be a complex task, as nationalism can clash with the principles of multiculturalism and the rights of minority groups. Nationalism and International Relations: Nationalist interests and rivalries can impact international relations, trade agreements, diplomatic relations, and conflicts between nations. Contemporary Examples: Brexit: The decision of the United Kingdom to leave the European Union reflects nationalist sentiments and concerns over national sovereignty and control over borders and laws. Rise of Populist Movements: Populist movements around the world often draw on nationalist rhetoric, emphasizing the protection of national interests, anti-globalization sentiment, and the defense of national borders. Regional Nationalism: Regional nationalist movements, such as those in Catalonia, Scotland, or Quebec, advocate for greater regional autonomy or independence within larger nation-states. Patriotism vs. Nationalism: Patriotism and nationalism share similarities but have distinct nuances. Patriotism is the love and loyalty towards one's country, often encompassing civic virtues, while nationalism typically emphasizes a more assertive and exclusive identity tied to a specific nation or ethnic group. 80 Future Trends: The future of nationalism will be shaped by evolving dynamics, including globalization, migration, demographic changes, technological advancements, and global challenges such as climate change and economic disparities. Balancing national interests with global cooperation and addressing the tensions between nationalism and multiculturalism will be ongoing challenges for societies. It is important to note that nationalism takes various forms and can have positive or negative consequences depending on its manifestation and context. The complex interplay between nationalism, globalization, regional integration, and individual identities continues to shape our world today. → Fascism is a far-right political ideology that emerged in the early 20th century, primarily in Europe. Fascist movements were characterized by dictatorial power, authoritarianism, extreme nationalism, and the suppression of political opposition. Fascist regimes sought to create a centralized, militarized state led by a single leader and aimed to mobilize the population towards achieving national greatness and perceived racial cultural superiority. Here is an overview of fascism: Core Principles: Authoritarianism: Fascism emphasizes the concentration of power in the hands of a single leader or ruling elite, often with little regard for democratic institutions or individual freedoms. Nationalism: Fascist ideologies promote an intense loyalty and devotion to the nation, emphasizing the superiority and purity of a particular ethnic or racial group. Totalitarianism: Fascist regimes sought to control and regiment all aspects of society, including politics, the economy, culture, education, and even personal life, aiming to create a homogenous and conformist society. Anti-Democratic: Fascism rejects liberal democracy and views it as weak, inefficient, and corrupt, favoring a strong, centralized state led by a charismatic leader. Militarism: Fascist ideologies often glorify war, promote militarism, and prioritize military strength and aggression as means to achieve national goals and expand territorial influence. Historical Examples: Benito Mussolini's Italy: Benito Mussolini established the first fascist regime in Italy in the 1920s, creating the National Fascist Party and eventually becoming the dictator. His rule emphasized nationalism, autocracy, and corporatism. Adolf Hitler's Nazi Germany: The Nazi Party, led by Adolf Hitler, rose to power in Germany in the 1930s. Nazi Germany was characterized by extreme racial nationalism, anti-Semitism, expansionism, and a totalitarian regime that led to World War II and the Holocaust. 81 Francisco Franco's Spain: Francisco Franco's regime in Spain, established after the Spanish Civil War (1936-1939), incorporated elements of fascism, such as authoritarianism, nationalist ideology, and suppression of political opposition. Characteristics of Fascism: Cult of the Leader: Fascist movements often revolve around a charismatic leader who is seen as the embodiment of the nation and possesses almost unlimited power. Propaganda and Indoctrination: Fascist regimes employed extensive propaganda campaigns to manipulate public opinion, control information, and shape the collective mindset of the population. Suppression of Dissent: Fascist regimes stifled political opposition, curtailed civil liberties, and used violence or intimidation to silence dissenting voices. Expansionist Ambitions: Fascist ideologies often sought to expand their territorial influence, engaging in aggressive foreign policies and territorial conquests. Impact and Legacy: Human Rights Abuses: Fascist regimes have been responsible for severe human rights abuses, including persecution, discrimination, imprisonment, and genocide. Destruction and War: Fascist regimes played a significant role in instigating World War II, resulting in widespread destruction, loss of life, and immense suffering. Stigmatization of Fascism: The atrocities committed under fascist regimes have led to a global rejection of fascism and its es, with the term being videly associated with oppression, totalitarianism, and racism. It is important to note that fascism is widely condemned today, and democratic societies prioritize the protection of individual rights, pluralism, and the rule of law. The historical lessons of fascism serve as reminders of the dangers of authoritarianism, extremism, and the erosion of democratic values. → The Enlightenment, also known as the Age of Reason, was a cultural, intellectual, and philosophical movement that swept across Europe during the 17th and 18th centuries. It was a period characterized by a shift in thinking and a departure from traditional religious and authoritarian beliefs, emphasizing reason, science, and individualism. Here's a detailed overview of the Enlightenment: Historical Context: The Enlightenment emerged in the wake of the Renaissance and Reformation periods, which had already challenged the dominant authority of the Catholic Church and sparked intellectual curiosity. The Scientific Revolution of the 16th and 17th centuries also laid the groundwork for Enlightenment thought by promoting empirical observation and the use of reason to understand the natural world. 82 Philosophical Foundations: The Enlightenment was heavily influenced by the ideas of key thinkers and philosophers, including René Descartes, John Locke, Thomas Hobbes, and Isaac Newton. These individuals emphasized the power of reason, the importance of individual rights and freedoms, and the potential for progress through scientific inquiry. Rationalism and Empiricism: The Enlightenment promoted both rationalism and empiricism as ways of acquiring knowledge. Rationalism emphasized the use of reason and logical thinking to understand the world, while empiricism emphasized the importance of sensory experience and observation. Philosophers sought to apply these methods to various aspects of human life, including politics, ethics, and social organization. Individualism and Human Rights: Enlightenment thinkers championed the rights of the individual and challenged the notion of absolute monarchy. Concepts such as natural rights, including life, liberty, and property, were promoted by philosophers like John Locke. These ideas laid the groundwork for the development of democratic principles, limited government, and the rule of law. Secularism and Religious Tolerance: The Enlightenment brought about a significant shift towards secularism, separating religious and political authority. Philosophers advocated for religious tolerance and freedom of thought, challenging the power of the Church and calling for religious pluralism. Voltaire, a prominent Enlightenment thinker, was a staunch advocate for religious freedom and freedom of speech. Science and Progress: The Enlightenment celebrated scientific inquiry and sought to apply scientific principles to various disciplines. The work of scientists like Isaac Newton and their discoveries in physics, astronomy, and mathematics reinforced the belief in the power of reason and the potential for human progress. The development of scientific method and empirical observation furthered the understanding of the natural world. Enlightenment and Society: Enlightenment ideas had a profound impact on various aspects of society, including education, politics, and the arts. The emphasis on reason and education led to the establishment of public schools and the spread of literacy. Enlightenment principles also influenced political movements, including the American and French Revolutions, which sought to challenge existing systems of government and establish new democratic orders. Legacy of the Enlightenment: The Enlightenment left a lasting impact on Western civilization. Its emphasis on reason, individualism, and the pursuit of knowledge laid the groundwork for the development of modern liberal democracies, human rights movements, and scientific advancements. The Enlightenment also influenced subsequent intellectual movements, such as Romanticism and Marxism, which built upon or reacted against Enlightenment ideas. In summary, the Enlightenment was a transformative period in European history, characterized by the promotion of reason, individualism, and the pursuit of knowledge. It challenged traditional religious and authoritarian beliefs, advocating for scientific inquiry, secularism, religious tolerance, and the rights of 83 the individual. The Enlightenment had a profound and lasting impact on Western civilization, shaping modern thinking, politics, and society. → Marxism is a social, political, and economic theory developed by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels in the 19th century. It is a key ideology within the broader framework of socialism and has had a significant impact on politics, economics, and social thought. At its core, Marxism seeks to analyze and critique the capitalist system and aims to establish a classless society where the means of production are collectively owned and controlled by the working class. Marxism views society as being divided into two main classes: the bourgeoisie (capitalist class) and the proletariat (working class). Key Concepts of Marxism: Historical Materialism: Marxism is rooted in historical materialism, which posits that the development of human society is driven by the conflicts and contradictions arising from the material conditions of production. Marx believed that the history of society is characterized by class struggles. Dialectical Materialism: This concept combines the Hegelian dialectic with materialism. It suggests that change and progress occur through the clash of opposing forces (thesis and antithesis), resulting in a synthesis that becomes the new thesis. Class Struggle: Marx argued that the primary source of conflict in capitalist societies is the class struggle between the bourgeoisie, who own and control the means of production, and the proletariat, who must sell their labor to survive. Surplus Value: Marx emphasized the extraction of surplus value from the labor of workers by the capitalist class. He argued that the capitalist system exploits workers by paying them less than the value they create, leading to alienation and economic inequality. Alienation: Marx believed that under capitalism, workers become alienated from the products of their labor, from the process of production, from their own creative potential, and from one another. Alienation results from the separation of workers from the means of production and the control over their labor. Revolution and Dictatorship of the Proletariat: Marx predicted that the contradictions and inequalities of capitalism would eventually lead to a proletarian revolution, where the working class would overthrow the bourgeoisie and establish a socialist society. In the transitional phase, the dictatorship of the proletariat would be necessary to suppress the remnants of capitalism. Abolition of Private Property: Marxism advocates for the abolition of private ownership of the means of production, aiming for collective or state ownership. This would eliminate the exploitative relationship between capitalists and workers. 84 It's important to note that while Marxism has influenced various political movements and governments, the practical implementations of Marxism have varied and often faced significant challenges. Critics of Marxism raise concerns about the potential for authoritarianism, economic inefficiencies, and limitations on individual freedoms. Vocab/Concepts: → Agricultural revolution: A term that refers to the changeover from food gathering to food production that occurred between ca. 8000 and 2000 BCE (aka. "Neolithic Revolution") → Aristocracy: The highest class in certain societies, especially those holding hereditary title or offices → Barbarian: A member of a community tribe not belonging to one of the great civilizations in ancient times (the Greek, Romans, Christians, etc.) → Brahmins: An individual belonging to the Hindu priest, artisan, teachers, technicians class, and also to an individual belonging to the Brahmin tribe/caste into which an individual is born; while the word Brahmin refers to the creative aspect of the universal consciousness or God Bureaucracy: A system of government in which most of the decisions are made by state officials rather than by elected representatives → Egalitarian: Of, relating to, or believing in the principle that all people are equal and deserve equal rights and opportunities → Pastoralism: Agriculture branch concerned with the raising of livestock. "Animal Husbandry" → Sericulture: The production of silk and the rearing of Silk Worms for this purpose ↑ → Decolonisation: The process by which colonies become independent of the colonizing country. Decolonization was gradual and peaceful for some British colonies largely settled by expatriates but violent for others, where native rebellions were energized by nationalism. → Manorialism: also called manorial system, seignorialism, or seigneurial system, political, economic, and social system by which the peasants of medieval Europe were rendered dependent on their land and on their lord. 85 << Handful of Topics from All Units that are Most Commonly Tested >> <<< All Credit goes to https://www.albert.io/blog/frequently-tested-ap-world-history-terms-and-concepts/ 1. Dar al-Islam 2. Filial Piety < Unit One: The Global Tapestry. Seven most commonly tested topics > 3. Bhakti Movement 4. Feudalism The Dar al-Islam, commonly referred to as the House of Islam, is a broad term that refers to those countries where Muslims can practice their religion freely. Think of this term as areas where Islamic law prevails. Founded in the 600s, Islam spread from India to Spain within a few centuries, and the ideology of Dar al-Islam helped establish Muslim caliphates. Moreover, it allowed for the expansion of trading networks. Within Dar al-Islam, Muslim caliphates conquered and often tolerated different beliefs as long as non-Muslims paid a tax called a jizya. Dar-al Islam is essential to begin understanding Islam and its expansion, and questions involving it will certainly appear on the exam. In Confucian thought, filial piety is a central virtue that emphasizes love, respect, and support for one's parents and ancestors. Additionally, it stresses that followers display courtesy, ensure male heirs, uphold fraternity among brothers, and carry out the proper sacrifices after a parent's death. Filial piety is demonstrated in Confucian stories such as The Twenty-four Cases of Filial Piety, which depict children exercising the tenet and upholding the tradition. Though China contains a multitude of different religious ideas, filial piety has remained a common tradition that runs throughout most of them. It can be difficult managing all the various Confucian concepts, so keep this one as a general rule of thumb. This term encompasses the Hindu devotional movement that flourished in the Medieval and early modern era, emphasizing music, dance, poetry, and rituals as means by which to achieve direct union with the divine. Think of it as a complete surrender to God. The Bhakti Movement has often been discussed by critics as an influential social reformation in Hinduism, and one that sought to provide an individual-focused alternative path to spirituality regardless of one's birthright or gender. In this way, the Bhakti Movement can be seen as a movement that started with the objective to reform or at least change specific aspects of Hinduism. The feudal system of the West came about with the fall of the great European empires, especially the Carolingian empire (think France, Germany, the United Kingdom, etc.). When these empires fell, Europe was left with a large and powerful military class without a strong state to govern them. Between the 9th and 15th centuries, society was structured around a series of exchanges. The military 86 5. Serfdom 6. Foot Binding 7. Greco-Roman Philosophy 1. The Silk Road class of knights/vassals agreed with the moneyed lords that they would protect the lord's land in exchange for land. These lands were called fiefs and were tilled and farmed by peasants who were allowed to live on the land in exchange for taxes. This, in a nutshell, is feudalism, and feudalism is essential to understanding the development of the West. Serfdom dovetails nicely into feudalism, as the two go hand-in-hand and are essentially inseparable. Serfdom is a type of labor commonly used in feudal systems in which the laborers work the land in return for protection. However, this logic binds the serf to the land and their ruler. They were often not allowed to leave or pursue a new occupation. Serfdom was common in early Medieval Europe as well as in Russia until the mid-19th century. Possibly one of the most visible reminders of Imperial Chinese upper-class visions of beauty, foot binding became a symbol of feminine attractiveness and extravagance. In 10th-century China, upper-class court dancers began applying painful bindings to young women as a way to stunt the growth of their feet. The popularity of this act spread as the smaller foot represented not only beauty but the extravagance of the upper classes that did not need to use their feet to work. Often called lotus feet, the practice would not die out until the 20th century. Though the 2019-2020 APⓇ World History course begins after Greco-Roman times, understanding their contributions to civilization is essential to understanding world history at large. This is less of a concrete event and more of an essential concept that you'll need to keep in mind for your APⓇ World History exam. Where eastern philosophies like Daoism revolved around the natural world, the philosophies of the Greek and Roman empires were often based upon logic, empirical observation, and the nature of political power and hierarchy. Part of the reason for this difference was the Greco-Roman strive for imperial expansion and the quest for practical solutions to political control. This was accomplished with the help of great thinkers like Aristotle and Cicero. < Unit Two: Networks of Exchange. Six most commonly tested topics > This was an ancient trade route that connected Asia with Europe. It acted as the central artery of cultural, economic, and political exchange that began to take shape around 200 BCE and remained in use until about 1400 CE. It connected many peoples from the Pacific Ocean on the shores of eastern China to those of Western Europe via the Mediterranean Sea. The road was actually a product of imperial 87 2. Indian Ocean Trade 3. Diasporic Communities 4. Inca Roads 5. Marco Polo expansion. As the Han Dynasty of China sought to pacify its frontiers, Emperor Wu sent a military mission out West that would run into the ancestors of Alexander the Great's men. This whole process opened up trade between East and West. The Indian Ocean Trade started within small trading settlements around 800 A.D. and flourished by 1400. This trading route served as the world's richest maritime trading network alongside the Silk Road and forged strong economic, social, and religious ties between lands. It is also considered a prime tool in the rapid expansion of Islam throughout the late-Medieval and early-Modern eras. The Indian Ocean Trade also helped birth a plethora of city-states along the African shore as well. A key term to understanding the reasoning and theory behind the dissemination of peoples throughout the world, diasporic communities were formed when merchants introduced their own cultural traditions into the indigenous culture where they were selling their goods. Think of diaspora at large as the dispersion of any people from their original homeland. Some concrete examples of diasporic communities include: Muslim merchant communities in the Indian Ocean region, Chinese merchant communities in Southeast Asia, Sogdian merchant communities throughout Central Asia, and Jewish communities in the Mediterranean, Indian Ocean basin, or along the Silk Road. Around 25,000 miles of roads connected the Inca Empire (1438 1533). As with many of the world's empires at this time, the Incas required a way to effectively maintain control, move armies, and facilitate trade across their territories. The result was one of the most impressive feats in pre-Colombian history. The road itself connected centers of Incan control, ranging from present-day Colombia to Chile. This technological and engineering feat was brought about by the growth of the Inca's imperial power and the desire to instigate trade in commercial goods. But it also represented a significant state project that encouraged economic, political, and social growth simultaneously. Marco Polo became one of the most famous European travelers to make it to eastern China. He was by no means the first European to do this, but he has become the most famous. In the 13th century, Polo set out to China at the height of the Mongol Empire with the intent of opening cultural and economic trade. He accomplished this after 24 years 88 6. Bubonic Plague 1. Mercantilism of traveling. He provided detailed, lurid, and often embellished accounts of his travels, romanticizing his expeditions. Polo's writings about his travels, in fact, inspired future explorers of the Age of Exploration, including Christopher Columbus. 2. Ivan (IV) The Terrible The Bubonic Plague, a.k.a the Black Plague/Black Death, was a devastating global epidemic of bubonic plague that struck Europe and Asia in the mid-1300s. It came to Europe from the Mongol rats during the Middle Ages and devastated Europe's population and economy. To be more specific, it killed 1/3 of Europe's population, an enormous chunk then (and still scary huge by today's standards). The Black Death also helped end feudalism. Peasants were now free to leave the lands of the lords to try to find higher wages because of the huge labor shortages. The land that had usually been the primary source of wealth was now worthless. It marks a salient moment in the development of European history, life, and even commerce. < Unit Three: Land Based Empires. Seven most commonly tested topics > In order to understand the development of land-based empires, you must have a thorough understanding of mercantilism. Europe was dominated by mercantilist economics, policies, and philosophies throughout the early modern period and the Renaissance. The concept itself created political power through the economy. Instead of justifying state power via the divine authority of kings or through strict military dominance, mercantilist economic theory argued that governments should regulate that economy and use beneficial trade to oust rival nations. But it also entailed so much more as the mercantilist states often found themselves going to war with one another over resources and resorting to colonial expansion in order to maintain political supremacy. This is the birth of global capitalism. While Europe began cultivating economic powerhouses, Russia began cultivating land-based empires helmed by dynastic rulers known as tsars. Ivan The Terrible, technically Russia's first tsar, did a ton of important things in Russia's history. Generally put, he confirmed the power of the tsarist autocracy by attacking the authority of the boyars; he continued a policy of expansion; and he established contacts with western European commerce and culture. By the 89 3. The Ming Dynasty 4. The Qing Dynasty 5. The Manchu Empire end of his career, he grew increasingly volatile and paranoid and lost many of his followers. He killed his only heir, thus launching Russia into a long-standing Time of Troubles. He is a central figure in the ever-expanding story of Russian history. A key empire in the development of China, the Ming Dynasty ruled China from 1368 to 1644 A.D. During this time, China's population doubled, and it began to develop into the powerhouse it is today. The Ming Dynasty essentially expanded China's trade and mercantile reputation, and it tied deep networks to the outside world, including cultural ties with the West. The Ming Dynasty is also remembered for its developments in shaping distinctly Chinese culture, drama, literature, and world-renowned porcelain. Understanding the succession of the Chinese empires is crucial to unpacking the development of China as a whole. The final imperial dynasty of China, the Qing Dynasty (1644 to 1911), supplanted the Ming empire and propelled China further into the powerhouse status it retains today. Ruled for 61 years (the longest of any Chinese emperor) by Emperor Kangxi, Qing-era China saw several substantial cultural leaps, including the standardization of the Han language, funding to develop highly-detailed and meticulous maps, and more. Kangxi also displayed great military prowess, halting three Han rebellions, continuous invasion attempts by Tsarist Russia, and more. He also cut taxes, and attempted to fix corruption and governmental excess through populist-leaning policies and agrarian incentives. The Qing Dynasty is also noted for its isolationism. The Manchu were the people of what is now called Manchuria. They had always been an ethnic minority under Han Chinese control until they revolted and started the Qing Dynasty in the 17th century. This dynasty would last until 1912. While in control, the Manchu celebrated their culture and ideas despite being minorities. This included the "queue" hairstyle that became associated with Chinese culture of the elite classes. However, as global influences spread, foreign pressure from Europeans put strains on the Empire. Their outsider status proved to be a detriment as many Chinese began to blame these "Manchu foreigners" for giving European powers too 90 6. The Ottoman Empire 7.95 Theses much control in their country. Why did we include this one on the list? Well, the Ottoman Empire was one of the most formidable and lasting dynasties in world history. Created by Turkish tribes in Anatolia during the late fourteenth century, the Ottoman Empire grew into an Islamic superpower that maintained control over huge regions of the Middle East, Eastern Europe, and North Africa for more than 6 centuries. The Ottoman Empire's power was concentrated within a Sultan, who essentially was given absolute religious, political, and social power over their regions. Mehmed II, perhaps the most famous of the Ottoman sultans, conquered Constantinople in 1453 and destroyed what remained of the Byzantine Empire. The Ottoman Empire is an essential component of Middle Eastern history because it lays the foundation for what is to come in more contemporary history. 1. Atlantic Slave Trade Though some historians consider the story of Martin Luther and his 95 Theses apocryphal, its narrative still proves deeply important in the context of the Catholic Church. The legend goes like this: On October 31, 1517, German priest and professor of theology Martin Luter nailed a piece of paper to the door of Castle Church. The paper ostensibly contained 95 revolutionary suggestions designed to correct the corruption of the Roman Catholic Church. One practice that irked Luther, in particular, was the Church's use of indulgences, or tickets sold by pardoners that granted purchasers "access" to heaven and absolution. Whether the tale is true or false is beside the point because it is often considered the igniting moment of the Protestant Reformation, a long, drawn-out conflict of religion that would shape Europe throughout the next century. < Unit Four: Transoceanic Interconnections. Five most commonly tested topics > The Atlantic slave trade, sometimes called the transatlantic slave trade or Euro-American slave trade, involved the transportation, enslavement, and sale of African people by white slave traders, mainly to the Americas. The slave trade regularly followed the triangular trade route and the Middle Passage, existing from the 16th to the 19th centuries. The trade was responsible for transporting between 10 and 12 million enslaved Africans across the Atlantic Ocean. 91 2. United Fruit Company 3. Cash Crop 4. Joint-Stock Companies Conditions were notoriously brutal, and cruelty by slave traders upon slaves was rampant. The ships were overcrowded and unsanitary, with hundreds of Africans packed tightly into columns and rows below decks for a voyage of around 5,000 miles. Understanding the ties between commerce and the sheer horror of the Atlantic Slave Trade is crucial to understanding the connections between global commerce and racism. This US company, in the late 19th century, dominated the international fruit and banana trade throughout the early twentieth century. Businesses like the United Fruit Company have been called a banana republic due to the amount of influence they exerted towards the politics, economics, and social structures of many Latin American nations. These companies often encouraged the growth of infrastructure, including roads and telecommunications. But they also represented the influence of multinational corporations in the affairs of impoverished countries. Establishments like the United Fruit Company play an integral role in strengthening Western rule over developing countries. In an era defined by trade, money, and profit, cash was king. Therefore, any crop or agricultural product that created cash flow tended to be produced and then cherished. Perhaps even to a detrimental degree. A cash crop is just that a crop grown for cash instead of subsistence. Sugar (see The Atlantic System and United Fruit Company) was one of these cash crops. Before the arrival of Europeans into the Americas, sugar plantation was only a small part of the regional agricultural system. But after European arrival, it became the primary crop. These crops had devastating effects on the environment, local economy, and the health of many populations. They also typically included coerced or forced labor systems in order to maximize profit. These companies became the house in which capitalism was built and how global trading flourished. In the 15th century, European businessmen, investors, and politicians were getting together to invest in companies premised upon stock ownership. The amount of stock you received depended on how much money you invested. And the amount of stock you owned defined how much sway 92 5. East India Company 1. Pueblo Rebellion 2. Montesquieu you had in the company itself. These businesses helped to fund exploration projects throughout the world, where investors worked with colonists to extract goods from various locales for profit. One of the most famous of these was the British Virginia Company that began the English colonization of North America. Spain and Portugal held a monopoly over the East Indian spice trade until the defeat of the Spanish Armada by England. After this, England decided to gain a piece of the profit by forming the East India Company, setting up trading posts throughout East and Southeast Asia. However, the East India Company quickly became much more than a mere trading organization. The company eventually started establishing political strongholds and acted as an active agent of British imperialism in India for almost two centuries, marking one of global history's most tumultuous and problematic periods of East meets West. Unpacking the significance of Britain's influence on the East lies almost directly in understanding the affairs of the East India Company. < Unit Five: Revolutions. Five most commonly tested topics > Though the Pueblo Rebellion (1680) technically predates Unit 5's timeline of 1750-1900, it essentially lays the framework for the next few centuries where revolution makes frequent appearances. The Pueblo Rebellion was an organized revolt of Pueblo Indians against Spanish Rule in New Mexico. Though a peaceful people, the Pueblos had endured too much trauma at the hands of the Spanish, including forced Catholicism, severe punishments, and the burning of their land and sacred objects. On Aug. 10, 1680, the Pueblos launched a revolt that left 400 dead, forcing the Spanish to flee. The Pueblos celebrated by removing the traces of Christian baptism from their spaces, churches, and buildings. This rebellion marks an early moment of a soon-to-be tumultuous timeline. Montesquieu has often been considered one of the great thinkers of the Enlightenment. Born in 17th-century France, Montesquieu became an influential lawyer, political thinker, and author. He helped to coin the term despot, which he used to criticize the rulers of Europe at that time. He also celebrated republican visions of the separation of 93 3. American Revolution 4. French Revolution powers and constitutionalism. He argued that the citizenry of a state had a contractual relationship with the government to obey its authority in exchange for protection and law-based rights. Big thinkers like Montesquieu would help to give intellectual breath into the lives of the American and French Revolutions. In order to fully comprehend the wave of rebellions after 1700, you must have a strong grasp on the central tenets of the Enlightenment, and Montesquieu is a go-to. You are probably fairly familiar with the American Revolution, but we've included it on this list because, like the French Revolution, it perfectly encapsulates the spirit of the revolutionary era. On July 4th, 1776, the American Colonists, fed up with a variety of Great Britain's widespread abuses, including but not limited to taxation without representation, the Quartering Act, violence inflicted upon colonists by British soldiers, and more, declared revolution against their progenitors. The American Revolutionary War lasted from 1775 to 1783, with the colonists, now Americans, securing victory. The American Revolution is key to global history because it was one of the largest revolutions to transport Enlightenment ideals into real-life revolution, as the entire event was directly influenced by American pamphleteers like Thomas Paine, who, in turn, borrowed from Enlightenment theorists like John Locke and Immanuel Kant. It also laid the groundwork for the French Revolution. This is an essential, complex, and extremely multi-faceted event, but it is imperative that you have a basic understanding of it in order to score well. Here's a basic outline: during the 18th century, the French monarchy became increasingly absolute and despotic, a disposition which was exacerbated by King Louis XVI's poor economic policies, an expanding maldistribution of wealth, and a series of ruinous crop failures. The Third Estate, a new(ish) political force composed of France's non-aristocratic people, gained momentum with rhetoric inherited from the Enlightenment, which aimed to topple France's ruling class. On July 14, 1789, the Third Estate (now morphed into an even more formidable force called the National Assembly) stormed the Bastille and demanded reform. It gets way, way more complicated (and bloody-the guillotine becomes the 94 5. A Vindication of the Rights of Women 1. Social Darwinism National Assembly's tool of choice in executing the aristocratic class) than this, but this should be a nice primer. Check out this documentary for a more thorough explanation. < Unit Six: Consequences of Industrialisation. Five most commonly tested topics > 2. Spheres of Influence Mary Wollstonecraft wrote her A Vindication of the Rights of Woman in 1792. This work contains one of the earliest arguments for a feminist philosophy, although the term feminist would not have been used at this time). Wollstonecraft used Enlightenment ideals regarding freedom and equality to argue that women deserved the same fundamental rights as men. She argued that women were essential to the nation because they educated children, that women deserve the right to an education, and that women should be seen as companions to men rather than ornamental wives. Wollstonecraft's book became a symbol for the feminist movements that developed in the 19th and 20th centuries, and thus, a significant work of revolution indebted to the ideas proffered by the Enlightenment. Social Darwinism is a sociological theory stemming from, you guessed it, Charles Darwin, the biologist. This theory posits that individuals, groups, and peoples are subject to the same Darwinian laws of natural selection as plants and animals. Basically put, it's the belief that only the fittest survive in human political and economic struggle. Now largely discredited, social Darwinism was advocated by the West in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and was used to justify political conservatism, imperialism, and racism and to discourage intervention and reform. It is an ideological framework that helped accelerate industrialization. Since industrialization is directly tied to global expansion, the idea of spheres of influence is essential in understanding the modernization of the world during the 18th century onward. The phrase comes from the field of international relations, and it denotes a spatial region or concept division over which a state or organization has a level of cultural, economic, military, or political exclusivity. Huh? Well, to put it more simply, spheres of influence are areas in which countries have some political and economic control but do not govern directly (ex. 95 3. Karl Marx 4. Convict Labour 5. Chinese Exclusion Act Europe and the U.S. in China). Within these spheres, nations can exert their influence and control in order to reap benefits. This relationship is integral to industrialization. While Marx is often considered a seminal German philosopher, his work attempts to leap out from the theoretical boundaries of philosophy and bring about change in the so-called real world. His works, of which the most famous are The Communist Manifesto and Das Kapital, inspired the foundation of many communist regimes and revolutionary movements in the twentieth century. It is hard to think of many who have had as much influence in the creation of the modern industrialized world. Marxism is an extremely complicated and intricate school of social theory, but it is best that you understand at least the basics. Think of Marxism broadly as two related theories: Marx's theory of history and his theory of capitalism. Marx's theory of history, what's been called historical materialism, proffers the idea that history (the rise and fall of societies) stems from a series of class struggles rooted in capitalist modes of production. Marx's economic analysis of capitalism revolved around the labor theory of value, the idea that the value of a commodity was determined by the average number of labor hours necessary to produce it. Marx's theories play integral roles developing a body of thought critical of industrial capitalism. Convict labor was drafted in response to overcrowded prisons. Essentially, the practice went as follows: criminals were forced into public service and manual labor. The practice often used disciplinary methods and created living and working conditions reminiscent of slavery, where prisoners were housed and treated like animals. There was a high mortality rate. Australia saw a large growth in population during the 19th century as a direct result of convict labor, which actually led to an Australian gold rush and, eventually, mass migration to the island. Convict labor represented a new sense of slavery and drew further parallels between servitude and capitalism. Designed to stop the influx of Chinese immigrants to the United States, and particularly to California, The Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 suspended Chinese immigration for ten years and declared Chinese immigrants ineligible for naturalization. Though 96 1. Great Depression 2. Facism < Unit Seven: Global Conflict. Seven most commonly tested topics > Chinese-Americans already in the country challenged the constitutionality of the discriminatory acts, their efforts failed. It was one of the most significant restrictions on free immigration, and it prevented the US from receiving labor from a substantial source. It is significant because it points toward the ties between racism and industrialization. 3. Paris Peace Conference Though technically restricted to America, the Great Depression had devastating consequences that set the ball in motion for subsequent global catastrophe. The Great Depression began with the collapse of the US stock market in 1929, initiating a period of worldwide economic stagnation and depression. Sharp declines in income and production occurred as buying and selling slowed down. Widespread unemployment reigned supreme. On a global scale, countries raised tariffs to protect their industries, and America stopped investing in Europe. The great depression led to a loss of confidence that economies were self-adjusting and destabilizing the world, and it led to widespread economic discontent that would give rise to fascism. In order to fully comprehend the reasons behind the global conflicts of modernity, you must have a strong grip on the form of government known as fascism. Fascism is a form of far-right, authoritarian hyper-nationalism characterized by dictatorial centralized power, forcible suppression of opposition, and strong regimentation of society and the economy. This form of rule gained popularity in Europe during the 20th century, and it led to two global catastrophes: WWI and WWII. Simply put, fascism is a form of government that is ruled by an authoritarian leader, and they are often a totalitarian one-party state. They aim to prepare for armed conflicts and spread rule. Think Hitler, Mussolini, etc. Fascism during the 20th century led to a plethora of global horror, and it almost brought the world to a total standstill. The Paris Peace Conference was an international meeting held in January 1919 at Versailles. It was designed to establish peace after WWI and essentially rebuild Europe after the devastation of war. Much of the conference was dominated by the "Big Four," Great Britain, France, the United States, and Italy. The Big Four helped create the Treaty of Versailles, which effectively ended WWI, and argued 97 4. The Holocaust 5. Russian Revolution of 1917 6. Nationalism for the construction of a League of Nations that would serve as an international forum and an international collective security arrangement. Additionally, the Treaty of Versailles awarded German and Ottoman overseas possessions as "mandates" to members of the British Empire and France, and Europe underwent a renewed drawing of national boundaries. And Germany was hit with reparation fees and punishments. The Paris Peace Conference and the Treaty of Versailles would lay the foundation for the next global war, WWII, so it is a significant component of world history. You are probably already familiar with The Holocaust, but it is too important of an event to leave off this list. The Holocaust was a methodical plan orchestrated by Adolf Hitler during WWII to ensure German/Aryan supremacy. It called for the systematic murder of Jews, non-conformists, homosexuals, non-Aryans, and the mentally and physically disabled, and it culminated in the death of 11 million people. It represents one of the darkest moments in history, and it reveals something horrible lurking at the essence of modernity. It also marks a significant turning point in political, social, and cultural world history, representing something of a near apocalypse. 20th-century critical theorist Theodor Adorno famously wrote, "To write poetry after Auschwitz is barbaric." Indeed, the Holocaust undid the notion that man is inherently good. By the 20th century, Russian citizens had grown tired of an increasingly corrupt, incompetent Tsar regime, and the anger was exacerbated by famine and a horrible military performance in WWII. This discontent led to the Russian Revolution, which occurred in two successions. The first wave toppled the imperial government, and the second placed the Bolsheviks (a far-left, revolutionary Marxist faction founded by Vladimir Lenin) in power. A succession of power struggles, infighting, mismanagement, and more conflict would follow, ultimately leading to the rise of Joseph Stalin and the USSR. It essentially sets the stage for the rest of Russia's development in the 20th century, so it is a super important moment to memorize. Put simply, nationalism is a strong feeling of pride and devotion toward one's country. Of course, this concept can be a good thing as it ties citizens to their country and the personal to the political, ultimately achieving a shared sense of community stemming from national solidarity. However, nationalism in the 98 7. Spanish Civil War 1. Indian National Congress extreme can be incredibly dangerous to the well-being of a nation, and it can lead to war. Many of the fascist movements of the 20th century were directly tied to periods of intense nationalism, where anger, entitlement, and xenophobia culminated in extreme national pride. Check out this Time article on WWII and nationalism. Nationalism is simple enough on its surface, but articulating and analyzing how it surfaces, what it affects, and how it can be dangerous is tricky. < Unit Eight: Cold War and Decolonisation. Five most commonly tested topics > 2. Decolonisation In 1936, a rebellion helmed by right-wing Spanish military officers erupted in Spain after a coalition of Socialists and Communists was elected to run the country. The revolt quickly became a full-blown civil war. The military officers, led by Francisco Franco, gained financial and material support from Germany and began launching assaults against the left-leaning government forces who received financial and material assistance from Russia. The Civil War lasted for about three years, ending with a victory for Franco. This conflict is frequently called "a dress rehearsal for WWII" as it represented a conflict involving class struggle, a war of religion, a struggle between dictatorship and republican democracy, between revolution and counterrevolution, and between fascism and communism. In the 1920s and '30s, the Congress Party, led by Mohandas Gandhi, began advocating nonviolent noncooperation against the British government ruling India. From this movement came the Indian National Congress, often referred to as the Congress Party, a broadly based political party of India. During its first several decades of operation, the Congress Party passed moderate reform actions, while many were becoming radicalized by poverty stemming from British imperialism. In the early 20th century, some of the party started to endorse a policy of swadeshi ("of our own country"), which called on Indians to boycott imported British goods and promote Indian-made goods. By 1917, the more radical "Home Rule wing" had begun to exert significant influence within the country by appealing to India's diverse social classes. The creation and subsequent successes of the Indian National Congress pointed toward an era of decolonization that was to come. Decolonization is the undoing of colonialism, the latter being the process whereby a nation establishes and maintains its domination on overseas territories. 99 3. Ho Chi Minh 4. Israeli-Palestinian Conflict 5. Proxy War Between 1945 and 1960, nearly 36 dozen new states in Asia and Africa achieved autonomy or outright independence from their European colonial rulers through either revolution, peaceful compromise, nonviolent protest, or something else. These new countries responded to decolonization in various ways. Some newly independent countries acquired stable governments almost immediately; others were ruled by dictators or militaristic forms of government for decades, and some faced long civil wars. And on the European side, some governments welcomed a new relationship with their former colonies, while others contested decolonization with military intervention. This term is an essential vocabulary word. Ho Chi Minh will most famously be remembered for being the Vietnamese Communist revolutionary leader during the Vietnam War. But he also represented much more. His movement mimicked other decolonization efforts across the globe after World War II. In particular, he turned to the leaders of the democratic world, including the US and France, for help to become a sovereign nation. But in their denial, he turned to revolution as a response. He also represented the Cold War binaries that decolonization efforts ran into in their efforts for sovereignty. He was stuck between the Communism of Russia and the Democracy of the United States. The war itself would turn out to be a major blight in France's and the United States' histories, leading to social and political pressure against efforts in colonialism and Cold War interventionism. In November 1947, the United Nations (the UN) voted to divide the British mandate of Palestine into a Jewish state and an Arab state. Almost immediately, violent clashes emerged between Jews and Arabs in Palestine. As the British military began exiting Palestine, conflict continued to escalate, with both Jewish and Arab forces committing violence upon each other. Both sections argued and fought for total sovereignty. Among the most infamous events was the attack on the Arab village of Dayr Yasin on April 9, 1948. The news of a brutal massacre there spread widely and inspired both panic and retaliation. Days later, Arab forces attacked a Jewish convoy headed for Hadassah Hospital, killing 78. This back-and-forth violence continues to this day and makes for much of the violence in the Middle East. Proxy wars essentially, one might argue, make up the majority of military outbreaks after WWII. A proxy 100 < Unit Nine: Consequences of Industrialisation. Five most commonly tested topics > 1. Military Industrial Complex war is an armed conflict between two states or non-state actors which act on the instigation or on behalf of other parties that are not directly involved in the hostilities. In other words, a proxy war is a war instigated by a major power that does not participate. Think of the Spanish Civil War, the many skirmishes between the USSR and the United States in the Middle East, Eastern Europe, and perhaps even the Vietnam War at large-in a way. Proxy wars are significant because they are so complex. They allow national powerhouses to compete with each other without directly competing with each other. This sort of wartime deception is a crucial component of recent history. 2. Pan-Africanism This term became popular after American President Dwight D. Eisenhower used it in his 1961 presidential address to the nation. During that address, Eisenhower warned his listeners that the intimacy between the defense industry and the nation's military could potentially lead to some very serious and dangerous policy decisions on part of the US government. In other words, he warned that technology companies could easily profit off of war and thus encourage war for more profit. Protesters of the Vietnam War, in particular, used this speech as a way to criticize the US's presence in the region. Today, the military-industrial complex is often evoked in conversations surrounding Western military intervention, the US prison system, and the overall motivations of global military action. It's an essential concept if you want to begin unpacking the complexity of the "now." Pan-Africanism has been less of an event and more of an intellectual movement of the 20th and 21st centuries-it's an essential concept today. Built around the notion that all people of African descent have a shared history, they, too, have a shared destiny for the future. The movement itself has been particularly strong in Central and North America, where the African Slave Trade affected entire populations. Using a shared history of enslavement, Pan-Africanism finds empowerment in African identity. The beliefs have been diverse, though, ranging from Rastafarianism to Black Power. The African Union can also be seen as an instance of Pan-Africanism. Pan-Africanism has led to a surge in black empowerment movements and ideologies that have helped shape the 20th and 21st centuries. 101 3. Green Revolution 4. World Health Organisation 5. North American Free Trade Agreement Unlike the Russian Revolution or the American Revolution, the Green Revolution did not involve violence or warfare. This was a revolution in the technology of agriculture and how food was being produced. Between the 1930s and 1960s, a series of innovations completely altered how food was grown and produced across the world. New disease-resistant and high-yielding varieties of crops were being developed, particularly for wheat, corn, and grains. The result has been that nations have been able to grow more than what has been required to feed their populations, leading to a growing agriculture industry and increased access to food across the world. Established in 1948, the World Health Organization (WHO) is a specialized agency of the United Nations responsible for international public health. They follow a central constitution that emphasizes "the attainment by all peoples of the highest possible level of health." It is headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland, with six semi-autonomous regional offices and 150 field offices worldwide. Furthermore, The WHO's central objective includes advocating for universal healthcare, monitoring public health risks, coordinating responses to health emergencies, and promoting human health and well-being. It provides technical assistance to countries, sets international health standards and guidelines, and collects data on global health issues through the World Health Survey. Its inception represents an important moment in global cooperation to promote health. The North American Free Trade Agreement, often referred to simply as NAFTA, was an agreement signed by Canada, Mexico, and the United States which created a trilateral trade in North America. The agreement came into force on January 1, 1994, and eliminated most tariffs on products traded between the three countries, with a major focus on liberalizing trade in agriculture, textiles, and automobile manufacturing. The deal also sought to protect intellectual property, establish dispute resolution mechanisms, and, through side agreements, implement labor and environmental safeguards. NAFTA is significant because it establishes a commercial link between the countries of North America that would help define commerce during the next decade. 102 < PEP TALKS AND WORDS OF ENCOURAGEMENT AND ANXIETY/ADHD TIPS > Hey there, champion of history! I know you've been putting in countless hours of studying and preparation for the AP World History Modern exam, and I want you to know that your hard work will pay off. As the big day approaches, it's completely normal to feel a mix of excitement and nerves, but I have full confidence in your abilities and believe in your potential to conquer this challenge. 60 Remember, this exam is your opportunity to showcase your knowledge and understanding of the fascinating tapestry of human history. You have immersed yourself in the stories of countless civilizations, their triumphs, struggles, and transformative moments. You've explored the rise and fall of empires, analyzed social and cultural shifts, and pondered the impact of global connections. You've become a time traveler, navigating the complexities of different eras and perspectives. Now it's time to let all that knowledge shine. Embrace the journey ahead with a positive mindset. Trust in your abilities and know that you are more than capable of tackling any question that comes your way. You have diligently prepared, and you possess a deep understanding of the themes, concepts, and historical events that will be tested. Believe in yourself, and let that confidence fuel your performance. During the exam, remember to stay calm and focused. Take a moment to read each question carefully, and use your analytical skills to break down the prompts. Draw on your knowledge and draw connections between different regions, time periods, and themes. Remember to provide specific examples and evidence to support your arguments, showcasing your ability to analyze historical sources and make well-reasoned conclusions. If you encounter a challenging question, don't panic. Take a deep breath, gather your thoughts, and approach it with a methodical mindset. Break it down into manageable parts, and apply your critical thinking skills to unravel its complexities. Trust your instincts and rely on the solid foundation of knowledge you have built throughout your preparation. Remember, this exam is just one moment in time. It does not define your worth or your intelligence. Your passion for history and your dedication to learning are what truly matter. No matter the outcome, this experience has enriched your understanding of the world and has prepared you for future academic endeavors. So, go into that exam room with your head held high. Believe in your abilities, trust in your preparation, and embrace the opportunity to showcase your historical prowess. You've got this! Remember, the past is in your hands, and you are ready to make history. Good luck!,, 66 Remember, you've worked hard to get to this point, and you should be proud of all your efforts. Stay positive, stay focused, and approach the exam with confidence. Believe in yourself, and you'll be able to tackle any challenge that comes your way. You've got this! Best of luck on your AP World History Modern exam! ,, "Preparation is Key: Thoroughly prepare and review the material before the exam. Feeling confident in your knowledge can help alleviate anxiety. Create a study schedule, break down the material into manageable chunks, and use techniques such as flashcards or practice tests to reinforce your understanding. Time Management: 103 Develop a time management strategy for the exam. Familiarize yourself with the structure and timing of each section. Break down the allotted time for each question or section, and aim to stick to that schedule. This can help keep you focused and prevent time-related anxiety. Breathing Exercises and Relaxation Techniques: Practice deep breathing exercises and relaxation techniques before and during the exam. Deep breaths can help calm your nervous system and reduce anxiety symptoms. Find a technique that works for you, such as diaphragmatic breathing or progressive muscle relaxation. Visualize Success: Take a moment before the exam to visualize yourself performing well and feeling calm and focused. This positive visualization can help boost your confidence and set a positive mindset for the exam. Break Tasks into Smaller Steps: If you struggle with ADHD, breaking tasks into sma manageable steps can help you stay focused and organized. This approach can make studying and approaching each question during the exam feel more manageable. Use Strategies for ADHD: Consider employing strategies specifically designed for individuals with ADHD, such as the Pomodoro Technique. This technique involves breaking your study or exam time into short, focused bursts with frequent breaks. It can help you maintain attention and manage restlessness. Utilize Accommodations: If you suspect you have ADHD or anxiety and it significantly impacts your exam performance, consider speaking with a medical professional or a school counselor. They can provide guidance on obtaining accommodations, such as extended time or a distraction-reduced environment, to support your needs during the exam. ,, 104