Major Wars in European History (1337-1763)

The Hundred Years' War $1337-1453$ fundamentally shaped medieval Europe through its prolonged conflict between England and France. This pivotal struggle began over territorial disputes and ended with France's emergence as a unified nation. Joan of Arc played a transformative role, leading French forces to crucial victories that awakened French nationalism and contributed to post-war centralization efforts.

Definition: The Hundred Years' War was a series of conflicts between England and France that lasted 116 years, fundamentally reshaping both nations' political and social structures.

The French Civil Wars $1562-1594$, also known as the Wars of Religion, involved three major factions: the Protestant Huguenot Bourbons, the Catholic Guise faction, and the Valois royal family. The St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre triggered the War of the Three Henrys, culminating in Henry of Navarre becoming France's first Bourbon king, establishing a new dynasty.

The Thirty Years' War $1618-1648$ marked the last major religious conflict in Europe, primarily fought within the Holy Roman Empire. This complex struggle unfolded in four distinct phases: the Bohemian, Danish, Swedish, and Franco-Swedish phases. The war's conclusion through the Peace of Westphalia fundamentally altered European power dynamics, diminishing Habsburg authority while elevating France's status.

English Civil War and the Stuart Dynasty

The English Civil War $1642-1649$ emerged from mounting tensions between Parliament and the Stuart monarchy. James I's assertion of divine right kingship and Charles I's autocratic tendencies led to increasing conflict with Parliament, ultimately resulting in open warfare between Royalist Cavaliers and Parliamentary Roundheads.

Highlight: The execution of Charles I in 1649 marked the first time in English history that a reigning monarch was publicly tried and executed, fundamentally challenging traditional concepts of royal authority.

Oliver Cromwell's subsequent rule as Lord Protector transformed England into a commonwealth, though his military-backed regime faced continuous challenges from various factions. The restoration of the Stuart monarchy under Charles II demonstrated the English people's preference for traditional monarchy over military rule, albeit with increased parliamentary oversight.

The Glorious Revolution of 1688 established a new constitutional order in England, with William and Mary accepting the Bill of Rights and creating a balanced system of monarchy and parliamentary power. This bloodless revolution set important precedents for modern democratic governance.

European Wars of Succession

The War of the League of Augsburg $1689-1697$ represented a collective European response to Louis XIV's expansionist policies. A coalition including the Holy Roman Empire, Britain, Spain, and others fought to maintain the continental balance of power, ultimately resulting in a status quo peace.

Example: The War of Spanish Succession $1702-1713$ demonstrated how dynastic politics could trigger international conflicts, as European powers sought to prevent French domination through the union of French and Spanish crowns.

The War of Austrian Succession $1740-1748$ erupted when Prussia's Frederick II challenged Maria Theresa's inheritance of Habsburg territories, despite the earlier Pragmatic Sanction agreement. This conflict revealed Prussia's emerging power and reshaped central European politics.

The Seven Years' War and Colonial Expansion

The Seven Years' War $1756-1763$ represented a major turning point in European and colonial history. This conflict combined continental European power struggles with colonial competition between Britain and France, effectively becoming the first global war.

Vocabulary: The Diplomatic Revolution refers to the dramatic shift in European alliances, with traditional enemies Austria and France aligning against Prussia and Britain.

The Treaty of Paris $1763$ dramatically altered the global balance of power. Britain emerged as the dominant colonial power, while Prussia's retention of Silesia confirmed its status as a major European power. This conflict's outcome shaped international relations for decades to come.

The war's colonial dimension fundamentally transformed North America, establishing British dominance and setting the stage for future developments in colonial governance and independence movements.

Major Events and Wars in European History: French Revolution and Napoleonic Era

The French Revolution stands as one of the most pivotal AP Euro important events, transforming European society and politics between 1789-1799. The revolution emerged from deep-rooted problems in French society, particularly the oppressive Estates system that divided the population into three distinct social classes.

Definition: The Estates System consisted of:

• First Estate: Catholic clergy $0.5$
• Second Estate: Nobility $1.5$
• Third Estate: Bourgeoisie and peasants $98$

The immediate causes included a severe financial crisis stemming from foreign wars and lavish royal spending, widespread famine, and Enlightenment ideas challenging traditional authority. When Louis XVI called the Estates-General in 1789 seeking funds, it provided the Third Estate an opportunity to voice their grievances through the cahiers de doléances $list of grievances$.

Highlight: Key Revolutionary Events:

• Tennis Court Oath $June 1789$
• Storming of the Bastille $July 14, 1789$
• Women's March on Versailles $October 1789$
• Civil Constitution of the Clergy $1790$

The Reign of Terror and Rise of Napoleon

The revolution entered its most radical phase with the Jacobin Republic and the Reign of Terror under Maximilien Robespierre. This period, crucial in wars in ap euro timeline, saw the execution of King Louis XVI and thousands of suspected enemies of the revolution.

Example: The Committee of Public Safety, led by Robespierre, ordered mass executions including:

• King Louis XVI
• Queen Marie Antoinette
• Olympe de Gouges $women's rights activist$
• Suspected counter-revolutionaries

The Thermidorian Reaction ended Robespierre's reign, leading to the Directory government and eventually Napoleon's rise to power. The Napoleonic Wars $1792-1815$, another significant entry in the List of wars in ap euro, transformed the European political landscape.

Vocabulary: Key Military Campaigns:

• War of the Second Coalition $1798-1801$
• War of the Third Coalition $1805-1807$
• Peninsular War $1808-1814$
• Russian Campaign $1812$

Revolutionary Impact and European Response

The French Revolution's impact extended beyond France's borders, inspiring the slave revolt in Saint-Domingue $Haiti$ and influencing revolutionary movements across Europe. This period marked significant AP Euro treaties and political transformations.

The Congress of Vienna attempted to restore order to Europe after Napoleon's defeat, establishing a new balance of power. This diplomatic solution became one of the most important AP Euro treaties, shaping European politics for decades.

Quote: "The French Revolution was not just a French event but a European one, transforming political thought and social structures across the continent."

The revolutionary period's legacy continued through the July Revolution of 1830 and the Revolutions of 1848, demonstrating the lasting impact of revolutionary ideals on European society and politics.

The Age of Revolutions: 1830-1848

The period between 1830 and 1848 saw multiple revolutionary waves across Europe, marking another crucial era in Major wars in ap euro. The July Revolution of 1830 in France led to the overthrow of Charles X and established Louis-Philippe as the "bourgeois king."

The Revolutions of 1848 represented a broader European phenomenon, affecting multiple countries:

• France: Louis-Philippe's abdication and the Second Republic
• German states: Frankfurt Assembly and attempts at unification
• Austrian Empire: Metternich's fall and nationalist movements
• Italian states: Constitutional movements and resistance to Austrian control

Highlight: The 1848 revolutions, though largely unsuccessful in achieving immediate goals, significantly advanced nationalist and liberal ideals across Europe.

These revolutionary movements demonstrated the growing power of nationalist and liberal ideologies, setting the stage for future European political developments.

Major European Conflicts: The Crimean War and German Unification (1853-1871)

The mid-19th century marked a pivotal era in European warfare and political realignment, centered around two major conflicts: the Crimean War and the German Unification Wars. These AP Euro important events fundamentally reshaped the continent's balance of power and set the stage for modern European relations.

The Crimean War $1853-1856$ erupted as the Ottoman Empire began showing signs of weakness. This conflict, one of the most significant wars in AP Euro timeline, started when Russia attempted to take advantage of Ottoman decline. The British and French, concerned about Russian expansion, allied with the Ottomans. The war proved catastrophically deadly, with over 250,000 casualties - most from disease rather than combat. The conflict introduced modern military medical practices and highlighted the crucial role of nurses like Florence Nightingale.

Highlight: The Treaty of Paris $1856$ marked the end of the Crimean War and effectively terminated the Concert of Europe, fundamentally altering European power dynamics.

The German Unification Wars $1866-1871$ represented Otto von Bismarck's masterful strategy to unite German states under Prussian leadership. After the Frankfurt Assembly's failure in 1848, Prussia employed economic tactics through the Zollverein customs union to promote unity among German states. Bismarck, appointed as chancellor by King William I, pursued an aggressive foreign policy to achieve unification through what became known as "blood and iron."

Definition: The Zollverein was a customs union that eliminated trade barriers between German states, promoting economic integration and laying groundwork for political unification.

The Path to German Unity: Bismarck's Wars and Diplomatic Strategy

The process of German unification under Bismarck's leadership represents one of the most significant AP Euro treaties and political transformations. As a politique, Bismarck made pragmatic decisions based on current circumstances rather than rigid ideology, demonstrating remarkable flexibility in pursuing Prussian dominance.

Bismarck orchestrated three crucial wars to achieve German unification. The first victory came against Denmark in 1864, serving as a precursor to the larger Austro-Prussian War. These conflicts, part of the essential Major wars in AP Euro curriculum, showcased Bismarck's diplomatic and military prowess while distracting liberal opposition from domestic issues.

Example: Bismarck's strategy of "blood and iron" involved using warfare to unite German states while simultaneously managing domestic politics. His victory over Denmark in 1864 helped secure liberal support for his broader unification agenda.

The success of Bismarck's military campaigns gave Prussia decisive influence over German affairs and won crucial support from liberals who had previously opposed Prussian militarism. This combination of military victory and political maneuvering ultimately enabled the creation of a unified German state under Prussian leadership, fundamentally altering the European balance of power for decades to come.