The Estates General and Formation of the National Assembly

Why was the Estates General called? The mounting financial crisis and noble resistance to taxation forced Louis XVI to convene this ancient assembly in May 1789. The role of Estates General in French Revolution was pivotal, though not as intended. While the Third Estate received double representation (600 versus 300 for each other estate), voting remained by estate rather than by head, effectively nullifying their numerical advantage.

Highlight: The Third Estate's frustration with the voting system led to a revolutionary transformation of French governance.

The pamphlet "What is the Third Estate?" by Abbé Sieyès crystallized the grievances of the common people, declaring that the Third Estate was essentially France itself, while the privileged estates were mere parasites. After six weeks of stalemate, members of the Third Estate, joined by some progressive clergy and nobles, declared themselves the National Assembly.

What happened at the meeting of the Estates-General proved transformative when the king locked out the Third Estate delegates, leading to the famous Tennis Court Oath. Why was the Tennis Court Oath important? The delegates pledged to remain assembled until they created a constitution for France, effectively challenging royal authority and establishing France's first constitutional government.

Constitutional Monarchy and Growing Tensions

The National Assembly attempted to stabilize France through various reforms, including the creation of the assignat currency backed by seized church lands. However, the Civil Constitution of the Clergy (1790) proved deeply divisive, requiring clergy to swear allegiance to the state and creating a rift with the Catholic Church.

Louis XVI's last words would come later, but his fate was essentially sealed by the Flight to Varennes in June 1791, when the royal family attempted to escape Paris. This failed escape attempt destroyed remaining trust in the monarchy and led to the creation of the Legislative Assembly, which limited royal power to a mere veto.

Quote: The Brunswick Manifesto of 1792 threatened: "We will restore order in France IF every country in Europe joins us" - a threat that would help radicalize the revolution.

The emergence of political clubs, particularly the Jacobins and Girondins, reflected growing ideological divisions that would shape the revolution's future course. The Declaration of Pillnitz and Brunswick Manifesto demonstrated growing international opposition to revolutionary France, setting the stage for future conflicts.

The Reign of Terror and Its Aftermath

The Committee of Public Safety, initially created by George Danton but later led by Maximilien Robespierre, became the driving force behind the Reign of Terror. This 13-member committee maintained extensive surveillance over French citizens, seeking to identify and eliminate potential threats to the revolution.

The period from June 1793 to July 1794 saw approximately 40,000 executions under the Reign of Terror. Even George Danton, despite his earlier revolutionary credentials, fell victim to Robespierre's increasing paranoia and was executed as a counter-revolutionary. The situation reached a breaking point in the Thermidorian Reaction of July 1794, when Robespierre himself was arrested and executed.

Highlight: The Thermidorian Reaction marked the end of the Reign of Terror and initiated a shift back toward conservative power, leading to the "White Terror" - a period of conservative reprisals against revolutionaries.

Napoleon's Rise to Power

Napoleon Bonaparte's ascent began when he defended the National Convention from Sans-Culottes protesters, famously dispersing them with "a whiff of grapeshot." His military success led to rapid promotion and command of the Army of Italy, where he achieved significant victories against Austria.

The Directory, France's new five-man executive government, faced challenges from various quarters, including Gracchus Babeuf's "Conspiracy of Equals" - an early attempt to establish socialism in France. Napoleon's military successes, particularly in Italy and Egypt, enhanced his political standing despite setbacks like the Battle of the Nile.

Example: Napoleon's famous crossing of the Alps, immortalized in Jacques Louis David's painting, demonstrated his military prowess and growing legendary status.