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Mahak Tiwari
12/7/2025
Biology
Fungi Lecture Notes
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Fungi Fundamentals
Fungi are their own kingdom of mostly multicellular, sessile decomposers that are more closely related to animals than plants. Unlike plants with cellulose cell walls, fungi have cell walls made of chitin, the same material found in insect exoskeletons.
These organisms have a unique feeding strategy - they secrete digestive enzymes to break down organic matter externally, then absorb the nutrients into their cells. Scientists estimate there are roughly 100,000 known fungal species, but believe the total could reach 1.5 million species!
The basic building block of fungi is the hyphae - thread-like structures that each contain their own genetic information. Each hyphae can release digestive enzymes and absorb nutrients. When hyphae connect, they create a structure called a mycelium, which forms the main body of the fungus.
💡 The mushrooms we see popping up from the ground aren't the main fungal organism - they're just reproductive structures! The vast majority of the fungus exists as an underground network of hyphae.
Fungal Structure and Reproduction
Hyphae are genetically distinct and can attach to other hyphae. When they fuse together, they form a dikaryotic structure where the genetic information doesn't mix right away. This unusual arrangement allows fungi to maintain genetic diversity.
There are two main types of hyphae structures. Septate hyphae have separations (septa) between cells, while coenocytic hyphae lack these separations. These different structures affect how materials move through the fungal body.
Some fungi can grow to enormous sizes by connecting vast networks of hyphae. The Armillaria ostoyae fungus is an excellent example of this - a single organism can spread through acres of forest underground!
🔬 Fungi have their own unique cell structures that differ from both plants and animals. Their cellular organization allows them to thrive in their specialized ecological roles.
Fungi in the Environment
Fungi are primarily decomposers that help recycle nutrients in ecosystems. They don't need light to survive and can live almost anywhere except in extreme environments. This adaptability has allowed them to colonize virtually every habitat on Earth.
Some fungi consume living organic material. The mycosis group specifically can consume organic material like human skin, causing conditions like jock itch, ringworm, and athlete's foot. These fungi thrive in moist environments, which is why you'll also find mold growing on damp walls.
Many fungi form beneficial relationships. Mycorrhizae are thin threads that connect to plant roots, creating a mutualistic relationship. The plant provides the fungi with sugars, while the fungi supply the plant with more phosphorous and nitrates. Some plants use this relationship strategically to outcompete native plants.
🌱 About 90% of land plants form mycorrhizal relationships with fungi! This partnership is so important that many plants cannot survive without their fungal partners.
Fungal Diversity and Early Animals
Some fungi pair up with cyanobacteria or algae to form lichens, creating complex symbiotic organisms. Others, like Cordyceps, use living organisms to spread their spores throughout the environment - often with dramatic and sometimes gruesome effects!
Scientists classify fungi into seven major phyla. The Ascomycota (64,000 species) includes yeast, truffles, and penicillium. The Basidiomycota (31,000 species) contains most mushrooms we consume. The Microsporidia (1,300 species) are all parasitic fungi.
Early animals, known as metazoans, share four general characteristics: they're multicellular, motile at some point in their lives, heterotrophic (consuming others for energy), and develop from embryos. The evolution of metazoans took approximately 800 million years, evolving from single-celled organisms.
🧬 How did multicellularity evolve? Zoologists believe it happened in one of two ways: either through the Syncytial Theory (single cells becoming multinucleated) or the Colonial Theory (single cells forming colonies that became interdependent).
Animal Classification and Early Phyla
Animals develop according to three main embryogenic plans: acoelomates (no body cavity), pseudocoelomates (partial cavity without a peritoneum), and coelomates (true body cavity with a peritoneum). These developmental patterns help scientists classify animals.
Body symmetry is another important classification characteristic. Animals can be asymmetrical (irregular shape), have radial symmetry (equal parts around a central axis), pentaradial symmetry (equal parts in multiples of five), or bilateral symmetry (one plane creating two equal halves).
The phylum Porifera (sponges) represents some of the simplest animals. They're asymmetrical with no tissues (only cells), and have structures called spicules made of silica or calcium carbonate. They can reproduce both sexually and asexually through budding.
🌊 The phylum Cnidaria includes sea jellies and sea anemones with radial symmetry. They have tissues and primitive organs, can move, and cycle between two life stages: polyps (sessile) and medusae (mobile). Their distinctive nematocysts (stinging cells) are used for defense and capturing prey!
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This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
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I think it’s very much worth it and you’ll end up using it a lot once you get the hang of it and even after looking at others notes you can still ask your Artificial intelligence buddy the question and ask to simplify it if you still don’t get it!!! In the end I think it’s worth it 😊👍 ⚠️Also DID I MENTION ITS FREEE YOU DON’T HAVE TO PAY FOR ANYTHING AND STILL GET YOUR GRADES IN PERFECTLY❗️❗️⚠️
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Brad T
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Not only did it help me find the answer but it also showed me alternative ways to solve it. I was horrible in math and science but now I have an a in both subjects. Thanks for the help🤍🤍
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
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Aubrey
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Best app if you're in Highschool or Junior high. I have been using this app for 2 school years and it's the best, it's good if you don't have anyone to help you with school work.😋🩷🎀
Marco B
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
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This app is phenomenal down to the correct info and the various topics you can study! I greatly recommend it for people who struggle with procrastination and those who need homework help. It has been perfectly accurate for world 1 history as far as I’ve seen! Geometry too!
Paul T
iOS user
The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
I think it’s very much worth it and you’ll end up using it a lot once you get the hang of it and even after looking at others notes you can still ask your Artificial intelligence buddy the question and ask to simplify it if you still don’t get it!!! In the end I think it’s worth it 😊👍 ⚠️Also DID I MENTION ITS FREEE YOU DON’T HAVE TO PAY FOR ANYTHING AND STILL GET YOUR GRADES IN PERFECTLY❗️❗️⚠️
Thomas R
iOS user
Knowunity is the BEST app I’ve used in a minute. This is not an ai review or anything this is genuinely coming from a 7th grade student (I know 2011 im young) but dude this app is a 10/10 i have maintained a 3.8 gpa and have plenty of time for gaming. I love it and my mom is just happy I got good grades
Brad T
Android user
Not only did it help me find the answer but it also showed me alternative ways to solve it. I was horrible in math and science but now I have an a in both subjects. Thanks for the help🤍🤍
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
I found this app a couple years ago and it has only gotten better since then. I really love it because it can help with written questions and photo questions. Also, it can find study guides that other people have made as well as flashcard sets and practice tests. The free version is also amazing for students who might not be able to afford it. Would 100% recommend
Aubrey
iOS user
Best app if you're in Highschool or Junior high. I have been using this app for 2 school years and it's the best, it's good if you don't have anyone to help you with school work.😋🩷🎀
Marco B
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This app is phenomenal down to the correct info and the various topics you can study! I greatly recommend it for people who struggle with procrastination and those who need homework help. It has been perfectly accurate for world 1 history as far as I’ve seen! Geometry too!
Paul T
iOS user
Comprehensive Fungi Lecture Notes
Fungi form their own kingdom with unique characteristics that set them apart from plants and animals. Despite being more closely related to animals, fungi have cell walls made of chitin, not cellulose. These fascinating organisms play vital roles in ecosystems... Show more
Fungi Fundamentals
Fungi are their own kingdom of mostly multicellular, sessile decomposers that are more closely related to animals than plants. Unlike plants with cellulose cell walls, fungi have cell walls made of chitin, the same material found in insect exoskeletons.
These organisms have a unique feeding strategy - they secrete digestive enzymes to break down organic matter externally, then absorb the nutrients into their cells. Scientists estimate there are roughly 100,000 known fungal species, but believe the total could reach 1.5 million species!
The basic building block of fungi is the hyphae - thread-like structures that each contain their own genetic information. Each hyphae can release digestive enzymes and absorb nutrients. When hyphae connect, they create a structure called a mycelium, which forms the main body of the fungus.
💡 The mushrooms we see popping up from the ground aren't the main fungal organism - they're just reproductive structures! The vast majority of the fungus exists as an underground network of hyphae.
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Fungal Structure and Reproduction
Hyphae are genetically distinct and can attach to other hyphae. When they fuse together, they form a dikaryotic structure where the genetic information doesn't mix right away. This unusual arrangement allows fungi to maintain genetic diversity.
There are two main types of hyphae structures. Septate hyphae have separations (septa) between cells, while coenocytic hyphae lack these separations. These different structures affect how materials move through the fungal body.
Some fungi can grow to enormous sizes by connecting vast networks of hyphae. The Armillaria ostoyae fungus is an excellent example of this - a single organism can spread through acres of forest underground!
🔬 Fungi have their own unique cell structures that differ from both plants and animals. Their cellular organization allows them to thrive in their specialized ecological roles.
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Fungi in the Environment
Fungi are primarily decomposers that help recycle nutrients in ecosystems. They don't need light to survive and can live almost anywhere except in extreme environments. This adaptability has allowed them to colonize virtually every habitat on Earth.
Some fungi consume living organic material. The mycosis group specifically can consume organic material like human skin, causing conditions like jock itch, ringworm, and athlete's foot. These fungi thrive in moist environments, which is why you'll also find mold growing on damp walls.
Many fungi form beneficial relationships. Mycorrhizae are thin threads that connect to plant roots, creating a mutualistic relationship. The plant provides the fungi with sugars, while the fungi supply the plant with more phosphorous and nitrates. Some plants use this relationship strategically to outcompete native plants.
🌱 About 90% of land plants form mycorrhizal relationships with fungi! This partnership is so important that many plants cannot survive without their fungal partners.
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Fungal Diversity and Early Animals
Some fungi pair up with cyanobacteria or algae to form lichens, creating complex symbiotic organisms. Others, like Cordyceps, use living organisms to spread their spores throughout the environment - often with dramatic and sometimes gruesome effects!
Scientists classify fungi into seven major phyla. The Ascomycota (64,000 species) includes yeast, truffles, and penicillium. The Basidiomycota (31,000 species) contains most mushrooms we consume. The Microsporidia (1,300 species) are all parasitic fungi.
Early animals, known as metazoans, share four general characteristics: they're multicellular, motile at some point in their lives, heterotrophic (consuming others for energy), and develop from embryos. The evolution of metazoans took approximately 800 million years, evolving from single-celled organisms.
🧬 How did multicellularity evolve? Zoologists believe it happened in one of two ways: either through the Syncytial Theory (single cells becoming multinucleated) or the Colonial Theory (single cells forming colonies that became interdependent).
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Animal Classification and Early Phyla
Animals develop according to three main embryogenic plans: acoelomates (no body cavity), pseudocoelomates (partial cavity without a peritoneum), and coelomates (true body cavity with a peritoneum). These developmental patterns help scientists classify animals.
Body symmetry is another important classification characteristic. Animals can be asymmetrical (irregular shape), have radial symmetry (equal parts around a central axis), pentaradial symmetry (equal parts in multiples of five), or bilateral symmetry (one plane creating two equal halves).
The phylum Porifera (sponges) represents some of the simplest animals. They're asymmetrical with no tissues (only cells), and have structures called spicules made of silica or calcium carbonate. They can reproduce both sexually and asexually through budding.
🌊 The phylum Cnidaria includes sea jellies and sea anemones with radial symmetry. They have tissues and primitive organs, can move, and cycle between two life stages: polyps (sessile) and medusae (mobile). Their distinctive nematocysts (stinging cells) are used for defense and capturing prey!
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What is the Knowunity AI companion?
Our AI companion is specifically built for the needs of students. Based on the millions of content pieces we have on the platform we can provide truly meaningful and relevant answers to students. But its not only about answers, the companion is even more about guiding students through their daily learning challenges, with personalised study plans, quizzes or content pieces in the chat and 100% personalisation based on the students skills and developments.
Where can I download the Knowunity app?
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The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
I think it’s very much worth it and you’ll end up using it a lot once you get the hang of it and even after looking at others notes you can still ask your Artificial intelligence buddy the question and ask to simplify it if you still don’t get it!!! In the end I think it’s worth it 😊👍 ⚠️Also DID I MENTION ITS FREEE YOU DON’T HAVE TO PAY FOR ANYTHING AND STILL GET YOUR GRADES IN PERFECTLY❗️❗️⚠️
Thomas R
iOS user
Knowunity is the BEST app I’ve used in a minute. This is not an ai review or anything this is genuinely coming from a 7th grade student (I know 2011 im young) but dude this app is a 10/10 i have maintained a 3.8 gpa and have plenty of time for gaming. I love it and my mom is just happy I got good grades
Brad T
Android user
Not only did it help me find the answer but it also showed me alternative ways to solve it. I was horrible in math and science but now I have an a in both subjects. Thanks for the help🤍🤍
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
I found this app a couple years ago and it has only gotten better since then. I really love it because it can help with written questions and photo questions. Also, it can find study guides that other people have made as well as flashcard sets and practice tests. The free version is also amazing for students who might not be able to afford it. Would 100% recommend
Aubrey
iOS user
Best app if you're in Highschool or Junior high. I have been using this app for 2 school years and it's the best, it's good if you don't have anyone to help you with school work.😋🩷🎀
Marco B
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This app is phenomenal down to the correct info and the various topics you can study! I greatly recommend it for people who struggle with procrastination and those who need homework help. It has been perfectly accurate for world 1 history as far as I’ve seen! Geometry too!
Paul T
iOS user
The app is very easy to use and well designed. I have found everything I was looking for so far and have been able to learn a lot from the presentations! I will definitely use the app for a class assignment! And of course it also helps a lot as an inspiration.
Stefan S
iOS user
This app is really great. There are so many study notes and help [...]. My problem subject is French, for example, and the app has so many options for help. Thanks to this app, I have improved my French. I would recommend it to anyone.
Samantha Klich
Android user
Wow, I am really amazed. I just tried the app because I've seen it advertised many times and was absolutely stunned. This app is THE HELP you want for school and above all, it offers so many things, such as workouts and fact sheets, which have been VERY helpful to me personally.
Anna
iOS user
I think it’s very much worth it and you’ll end up using it a lot once you get the hang of it and even after looking at others notes you can still ask your Artificial intelligence buddy the question and ask to simplify it if you still don’t get it!!! In the end I think it’s worth it 😊👍 ⚠️Also DID I MENTION ITS FREEE YOU DON’T HAVE TO PAY FOR ANYTHING AND STILL GET YOUR GRADES IN PERFECTLY❗️❗️⚠️
Thomas R
iOS user
Knowunity is the BEST app I’ve used in a minute. This is not an ai review or anything this is genuinely coming from a 7th grade student (I know 2011 im young) but dude this app is a 10/10 i have maintained a 3.8 gpa and have plenty of time for gaming. I love it and my mom is just happy I got good grades
Brad T
Android user
Not only did it help me find the answer but it also showed me alternative ways to solve it. I was horrible in math and science but now I have an a in both subjects. Thanks for the help🤍🤍
David K
iOS user
The app's just great! All I have to do is enter the topic in the search bar and I get the response real fast. I don't have to watch 10 YouTube videos to understand something, so I'm saving my time. Highly recommended!
Sudenaz Ocak
Android user
In school I was really bad at maths but thanks to the app, I am doing better now. I am so grateful that you made the app.
Greenlight Bonnie
Android user
I found this app a couple years ago and it has only gotten better since then. I really love it because it can help with written questions and photo questions. Also, it can find study guides that other people have made as well as flashcard sets and practice tests. The free version is also amazing for students who might not be able to afford it. Would 100% recommend
Aubrey
iOS user
Best app if you're in Highschool or Junior high. I have been using this app for 2 school years and it's the best, it's good if you don't have anyone to help you with school work.😋🩷🎀
Marco B
iOS user
THE QUIZES AND FLASHCARDS ARE SO USEFUL AND I LOVE THE SCHOOLGPT. IT ALSO IS LITREALLY LIKE CHATGPT BUT SMARTER!! HELPED ME WITH MY MASCARA PROBLEMS TOO!! AS WELL AS MY REAL SUBJECTS ! DUHHH 😍😁😲🤑💗✨🎀😮
Elisha
iOS user
This app is phenomenal down to the correct info and the various topics you can study! I greatly recommend it for people who struggle with procrastination and those who need homework help. It has been perfectly accurate for world 1 history as far as I’ve seen! Geometry too!
Paul T
iOS user